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Afro-Argentines

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Afro-Argentines
Afroargentinos (Spanish)
Representatives of Senegal during Day of the immigrants 2010 in Buenos Aires
Total population
Sub-Saharan ancestry predominates
Increase 302,936 (2022 census)[1]
Increase 0.66% of the Argentina's population
Proportion of Black Argentines in each department as of the 2022 Argentine census
Proportion of Black Argentines in each department as of the 2022 Argentine census
Regions with significant populations
Predominantly in the Greater Buenos Aires and in the Argentine Northwest
Tempolete:Country data Buenos Aires Province Buenos Aires128,804[1]
Tempolete:Country data Buenos Aires Buenos Aires City40,670[1]
Tempolete:Country data Córdoba Córdoba18,366[1]
Tempolete:Country data Santa Fe Santa Fe16,560[1]
Tempolete:Country data Salta Salta10,632[1]
Languages
Majority: Spanish
Minority: Wolof · Portuguese · Haitian Creole
Religion
Majority: Catholicism
Minority: Sunnism · Traditional religion
Related ethnic groups
Sub-Saharan Africans
Black Latin Americans · Black Americans · Black Canadians · Black Jamaicans · Others

Afro-Argentines (Spanish: Afroargentinos), ba gape ba itsiweng jaaka Ba-Argentina ba Bantsho (Spanish: Argentinos negros), ke Ba-Argentina ba ba nang le letso le legolo kgotsa le le feletseng la Aforika yo o kwa Borwa jwa Sahara.[2] Batho ba Afro-Argentina ke ditlamorago tsa batho ba ba neng ba tlisiwa ka nako ya kgwebisano ya makgoba ya transatlantic ka makgolokgolo a dingwaga a puso ya Spain mo kgaolong[3][4] le bofaladi.[5]

Mo lekgolong la dingwaga la bolesome le boferabobedi le la bolesome le boferabongwe ba ne ba dira diperesente di le masome a matlhano tsa baagi mo ditoropong dingwe,[6] mme ba ne ba na le tlhotlheletso e e tseneletseng mo setsong sa Argentina. Dikgopolo dingwe tsa bogologolo di ne di tshwara gore mo lekgolong la bolesome le boferabongwe la dingwaga palo ya batho ba Afro-Argentina e ne ya fokotsega thata ka ntlha ya mabaka a le mmalwa, a a tshwanang le Ntwa ya Boipuso ya Argentina (c. 1810–1818), dipalo tse di kwa godimo tsa dintsho tsa masea, palo e e kwa tlase ya banyalani ba ba neng e le maAfro-Argentine botlhe, ntwa ya Argentina ya Triple Alliance,leroborobo la Cholera ka 1861 le 1864 le leroborobo la letshoroma le le serolwana ka 1871.[7]

Dipatlisiso mo dingwageng tse di fetileng di umaka go tlhakana mo go maatla ga merafe ya basweu le batho ba lefatshe ba tlhago mo lekgolong la dingwaga la bolesome le boferabobedi le la bolesome le boferabongwe jaaka lebaka le legolo la go fokotsega ga palo ya batho bantsho kwa Argentina.[7] Go tlhakana moo go ne ga rotloediwa ke dipuso tsa dinako tseo jaaka mokgwa wa go, mo motlheng wa ntlha, go dira gore batho ba e seng basweu (batho ba tlholego le bantsho) ba nne gaufi le basweu ka letso ka nako ya go aga setshaba sa segompieno, jaaka ba ne ba se bona; mme mo motlheng wa bobedi, di dire gore di fokotsege ka iketlo ka "go tlharolola" ga tsone go nna bontsi jwa basweu jo bo neng bo tshwanetse go nna jalo ka go rotloetsa bofaladi jwa bontsi go tswa kwa Yuropa le Botlhabagare, jo bo neng jwa simolola go goroga go tloga ka nako eo (bogareng jwa lekgolo la bolesome le boferabongwe la dingwaga) go fitlha ka dingwaga tsa bo 1940.[8] Ka nako e le nngwe, batho ba e seng basweu ba ne ba batla gangwe le gape go nna le bana le basweu jaaka tsela ya go dira gore ngwana wa bona yo o tlhakaneng ka letso a tshabe mo bokgobeng ka nako ya bokolone, mme moragonyana, mo tlhaoleleng.

Go tlisiwa ga makgoba a Aforika ka nako ya bokolone

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]
Sefikantswe sa "Bokgoba" se gape se bidiwang "Lekgoba", ka Francisco Cafferata kwa Parque Tres de Febrero, Palermo, kwa Buenos Aires, kwa Argentina

Jaaka karolo ya thulaganyo ya go fenya, dipuso tsa itsholelo tsa dikoloni tsa Yuropa kwa Amerika di ne tsa tlhama mefuta e e farologaneng ya go dirisa batho ba kgaolo eo ka tsela e e sa siamang. Le fa go ntse jalo, kitlano e e kwa tlase ya batho mo mafelong mangwe a Amerika Borwa, go gana ga ditlhopha dingwe tsa batho ba lefatshe leo go fetola setso, mme segolobogolo selekanyo se se kwa godimo sa dintsho tse di bakiwang ke malwetse a a neng a tlisiwa ke Bayuropa go ne ga dira gore palo ya batho ba kgaolo eo e fokotsege. Dithutopatlisiso di bontshitse gore ka ntlha ya go itlhaola ga bone mo bathong ba Lefatshe la Bogologolo pele ga go kopana ga ntlha le Bayuropa go tloga ka 1492 go ya pele, bokana ka 50-90% ya baagi ba tlhago go ralala Amerika ba ne ba bolawa ke malwetse a leroborobo,[9] a a neng a gakadiwa ke dikgatelelo tse di tlisitsweng ke go tsewa ga lefatshe ka tirisodikgoka le tsietso. Seo se ne sa dira gore Spaniards ba tlaleletsa batho ba tlhago ba lefatshe ka makgoba go tswa kwa Afrika Bophirima le Bogare.[10]

Mo lekgolong la bolesome le boferabongwe la dingwaga, meepo le temothuo e ne e le tsone tse di neng di dira bontsi jwa tiro ya itsholelo kwa Amerika. Tiro ya makgoba ya Aforika e ne e na le mosola wa go bo e ne e setse e tlhasetswe ke malwetse a Yuropa ka ntlha ya go nna gaufi, mme badiri ba Aforika ba ne ba tlwaela seemo sa bosa sa dikoloni bonolo fela. Mo kgannyeng ya Argentina, go tla ga makgoba a MaAforika go ne ga simolola kwa dikoloning tsa Rio de la Plata ka 1588. Bagwebi ba makgoba ba Yuropa ba ne ba reka makgoba a MaAforika, a morago ga moo a neng a romelwa ka sekepe go tswa kwa Aforika Bophirima go kgabaganya lewatle la Atlantic go ya kwa dikgaolong tsa Amerika le kwa Caribbean. Kgwebo ya makgoba e ne ya atlega go ralala maemelodikepe a Buenos Aires, koo makgoba a le diketekete a MaAforika a neng a goroga gone go tla go rekisiwa. Go tlisa makgoba kwa East Indies, puso ya Spain e ne ya naya dikonteraka tse di bidiwang Asientos go dikomponi tse di farologaneng tsa kgwebisano ya makgoba, tse di tswang kwa Spain le kwa mafatsheng a mangwe a Yuropa.[10]

Kwa morago go na le kago ya phemelo, e e fofang folaga ya Argentina e e sa tswang go tlhamiwa. Mo setshwantshong se se kwa pele basadi ba maAfro-Argentine ba tlhatswa diaparo mo nokeng.

Pele ga lekgolo la bolesome le borataro la dingwaga makgoba a ne a gorogile ka dipalo tse dinnye go tswa kwa ditlhaketlhakeng tsa Cape Verde. Morago ga moo bontsi jwa Maaforika a a neng a tlisiwa kwa Argentina a ne a tswa kwa merafeng e e buang dipuo tsa Bantu, go tswa kwa mafelong a jaanong a akaretsang Angola, Rephaboliki e e tlhophilweng ya Congo le Rephaboliki ya Congo (bontsi e le batho ba Bakongo le Mbundu). Ba-Yoruba le Ba-Ewe ba le mmalwa fela ba ne ba isiwa kwa Argentina; dipalo tse dikgolo tsa ditlhopha tseno di ne tsa isiwa kwa Brazil.[10]

Go fopholediwa gore makgoba a Aforika a le didikadike di le lesome le bobedi a ne a fitlha kwa Latin America, mme bontsi jwa one a ne a rwalwa ka dikepe tsa makgoba go ya kwa dikgaolong tse dingwe ka Valparaíso le Rio de Janeiro.[11] Go fopholediwa gore 10-15% ya makgoba e ne ya swa ka nako ya go kgabaganya Atlantic.[12] Le fa go ntse jalo, ba bangwe ba le bantsi ba ne ba swa ka nako ya thulaganyo ya go dira makgoba, ba tsamaya mo bogareng jwa Aforika, le fa ba ntse ba emetse go romelwa, ka dintsho tse di fopholediwang go nna masome mane mo makgobeng mangwe le mangwe a le lekgolo a a neng a fitlha kwa Lefatsheng le Lesha.[13][12]

Makgoba a ne a patelesega go dira mo temothuong, mo leruong, mo tirong ya mo gae le ka selekanyo se sennye mo tirong ya diatla. Mo ditoropong, makgoba a le mantsi a ne a dira dilo tse di dirilweng ka diatla gore a di rekise, fa madi a a neng a a bona a ne a ya kwa beng ba one. Tikologo ya Buenos Aires ya San Telmo le Monserrat e ne e na le makgoba a le mantsi, le fa bontsi jwa one a ne a romelwa kwa dikgaolong tse di kwa teng. Palobatho ya 1778 e e dirilweng ke Juan José Salcedo wa Vértiz e bontshitse kgobokano e e kwa godimo thata ya batho bantsho (le fa bontsi jwa yone e le setlhagiswa sa go tlhakana ga merafe ka selekanyo se se farologaneng le batho ba basweu le batho ba tlholego) mo ditoropong tse di mo dikgaolong tse tiro ya temothuo e neng e le kgolo mo go tsone: 54% kwa Santiago del Estero, 52% kwa San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca, 46% kwa Salta, 44% kwa Córdoba, 44% kwa San Miguel de Tucumán, 24% kwa Mendoza, 20% kwa La Rioja, 16% kwa San Juan, 13% kwa San Salvador de Jujuy le 9% kwa San Luis, le fa go ne go na le tse dingwe kwa ditoropong tse dingwe tse dinnye le diperesente tse di neng di le teng. Sekai, nngwe ya mafelo a a humileng ga jaana a toropo ya Corrientes e santse e itsege jaaka "Camba Cuá", go tswa mo seGuarani kamba kua, e e kayang "logaga lwa batho bantsho".[14]

Batho ba bantsho mo boipusong le mo ditsong tsa pele tsa Argentina

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]
Motlhabani wa Moaforika wa Mo-Argentina yo o tswang kwa Rivera, kwa Argentina (lekgolo la bolesome le boferabongwe la dingwaga).

Ka 1801 go ne ga rulaganngwa masole a ntlha a Afro-Argentina, ka fa tlase ga tlhokomelo ya Setlhopha sa Batho ba bagolo ba Buenos Aires le Setlhopha sa Batho ba ba gololesegileng ba Buenos Aires. Ba-pardos e ne e le batho ba ba gololesegileng ba ba tlhakaneng ba Yuropa, Aforika, le Baagedi ba Amerika, segolobogolo Guaraní, letso, fa "morenos" go lebega ba ne ba bopilwe ka masole a bontsi jwa letso lwa Aforika.[15] Masole a a ile a kopanngwa go nna Batallón de Pardos y Morenos, e e itsiweng gape e le Batallón Castas, ka maatla a dikomponi di ferabongwe, gammogo le dikomponi tse nne tse di thusang tsa makgoba, ka nako ya tlhaselo ya pele ya Borithane ya River Plate.[16] Maemo a sesole a ne a bonwa ka 1810, mme Sesole se sesha sa Regimento de Pardos y Morenos se ne sa tsaya karolo mo Ntweng ya Boipuso ya Argentina.[17]

Ka 1812, lepolotiki la Argentina Bernardo de Monteagudo o ne a sa letlelelwe go nna leloko la Triumvirate ya Ntlha, ka ntlha ya "mmaagwe yo o belaetsang"—ke gore, letso la Aforika. Bernardino Rivadavia, le ene wa letso lwa Aforika, e ne e le mongwe wa mapolotiki a a neng a thibetswe go tsenela puso ya boraro.[18] Kokoano ya Ngwaga wa XIII, e e neng ya bidiwa go tlhoma lefatshe le lesha le le ikemetseng la Argentina, e ne ya fetisa molao wa kgololesego ya dipopelo, o ka one bana ba ba tshotsweng ke makgoba go tloga ka nako eo ba neng ba nna baagi ba ba gololesegileng, mme ba ne ba sa golole ba ba neng ba setse e le makgoba. Batho ba bantsho ba le bantsi e ne e le karolo ya masole a botsoulodi le masole a a sa tlhomamang a a neng a feleletsa e le karolo ya Sesole sa Argentina, mme bontsi jwa bone e ne e le mo ditlhopheng tse di kgaoganeng. Le fa go ntse jalo, makgoba a bantsho a ne a ka kopa go rekisiwa le eleng go bona moreki fa a ne a sa itumelele beng ba one.

Morago ga go fedisiwa ga bokgoba, batho bantsho ba le bantsi ba ne ba lebagana le go tlhaolwa go go anameng. Dikolo tse di lesome le bone kwa Buenos Aires ka 1857, di ne di amogela fela bana ba le babedi ba bantsho, le fa 15% ya baithuti mo ngwageng oo e ne e le bantsho. Kwa Córdoba ka 1829, bana ba bantsho ba ne ba na le tshwanelo ya go tsena sekolo se segolwane dingwaga di le pedi fela, fa bana ba basweu ba Argentina bone ba ne ba ithuta dingwaga di le nne. Diyunibesiti di ne di sa amogele batho bantsho go fitlha ka 1853.

Bantsho ba ne ba simolola go gatisa makwalodikgang le go rulaganyetsa ditshwanelo tsa bone. Go ne ga gatisiwa pampiri nngwe, The Unionist, e e neng ya gatisiwa ka 1877 polelo ya gore batho botlhe ba na le ditshwanelo tse di lekanang le tshiamiso go sa kgathalesege gore ba na le mmala ofe wa letlalo. Nngwe ya dipolelo tsa yone e ne e balega jaana:

Molaomotheo ke lekwalo le le suleng mme Di-Count le di-Marquise di tletse, tse, morago ga puso ya bogologolo le e e tlhoilweng ya bokolone di neng di ikaeletse go tshwara batho ba ba ka fa tlase ga tsone jaaka makgoba, di sa tlhaloganye gore mo gare ga banna ba ba tlhabisang ditlhong go na le ba le bantsi ba ba fitlhang ka fa tlase ga diaparo tsa bone botlhale jo bo makgwakgwa jo bo kwa godimo ga jwa go galefa mo go tshwanang.

Dikoranta tse dingwe e ne e le The African Race, The Black Democrat le The Proletarian, tsotlhe di ne tsa gatisiwa ka 1858. Ka dingwaga tsa bo 1880 go ne go na le batho bantsho ba ba ntseng jalo ba Argentina ba ba ka nnang masome a mabedi ba ba neng ba gatisa makwalodikgang kwa Buenos Aires; mme babatlisisi bangwe ba tsaya gore mekgatlho e ya loago e botlhokwa thata mo go tsenngweng ga botsalano le kgopolo ya tshiamiso ya loago mo setsong sa Argentina.

Bantsho bangwe ba ne ba tsena mo dipolotiking. José María Morales le Domingo Sosa ba ne ba le mo tirong e le badiredi ba bagolo ba sesole mme ba ne ba na le maemo a a botlhokwa mo dipolotiking.

Go fokotsega ga palo ya batho ba Afro-Argentine

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]
Lelwapa la BaAfro-Argentine la Buenos Aires, 1908

Mo masomeng a dingwaga a a fetileng, go ile ga ganetsanwa ka dikgopolo tsa gore ke eng se se bakileng go wela tlase ga tsone. Dikgopolo tsa bogologolo di ne di latofatsa polao ya semorafe jaaka ntlha e kgolo mo phokotsong ya palo ya bone.[7] Gareng ga mabaka a a tlhagisitsweng ke dintsho tse di kwa godimo tse go akanngwang tsa masole a mantsho mo dintweng tsa lekgolo la bolesome le boferabongwe la dingwaga (ka gonne go ya ka kgopolo, e ne e le palo e e kwa godimo e e sa lekalekaneng mo gare ga masole a a tshwereng dibetsa, e e neng e tla bo e rulagantswe ka bomo ke dipuso tsa nako eo) le mo leroborobong la letshoroma le le serolwana le le neng la nna teng ka 1871 le le neng la wela borwa jwa toropo ya Buenos Aires, mmogo le go fudugela kwa Uruguay ka bontsi (ka ntlha ya gore go ka bo go nnile le batho ba bantsho ba bantsi le maemo a bosa a a siameng a dipolotiki).

Dipatlisiso mo masomeng a dingwaga a bosheng jaana di kgaphetse dikgopolo tse di ntseng jalo kwa thoko.[7] Le fa e le boammaaruri gore batho bantsho ba ne ba dira karolo e e botlhokwa ya masole le masole a lekgolo la bolesome le boferabongwe la dingwaga, e ne e se bontsi e bile palo ya bone e ne e sa farologane thata le ya batho ba tlhago le basweu, tota le mo maemong a a kwa tlase (se se bidiwang furu ya dikanono). E bile malwetse a letshoroma le le serolwana a a neng a ama Buenos Aires (bogolo jang a a neng a bolaya thata, e e neng e le a 1871) ga a ka a nna le ditlamorago tse dikgolo, ka gonne dipatlisiso tsa palo ya batho ga di tshegetse kgopolo eo (go na le moo, di bontsha gore ba ba neng ba amega thata e ne e le bafaladi ba bosheng ba Yuropa ba ba neng ba tshela mo lehumeng)[19] mme, gape, kgopolo e ga e tlhalose ka go fokotsega ga batho ba bantsho mo karolong e e setseng ya Argentina.

Kgopolo e e amogelwang thata gompieno ke gore palo ya batho bantsho e ne ya fokotsega ka iketlo mo dikokomaneng ka ntlha ya go tlhakana ga yone le basweu le, ka selekanyo se sennye, batho ba tlhago, e e neng ya diragala kgapetsakgapetsa fa e sale ka lekgolo la bolesome le boferabobedi la dingwaga mo pakeng ya bokolone, le gore e ne ya itlhaganela le go feta mo bofelong jwa lekgolo la bolesome le boferabongwe la dingwaga la bokolone (mo Argentina yo o neng a setse a ipusa) ka go goroga ga lekhubu le legolo la bofaladi go tswa kwa Yuropa le Botlhabagare,[7] le le neng la rotloediwa ke dipuso tsa Argentina tsa nako eo tota gore batho ba e seng basweu ba nne "ba ba tlharolotsweng" mo teng ga bontsi jwa basweu ka go tlhakana ga merafe. Thulaganyo eo e ne e tshwana le ya kontinente yotlhe (ka dipholo tse di farologaneng go ikaegile ka selekanyo sa bofaladi le diponagalo tse di rileng tsa setho tsa kgaolo nngwe le nngwe) mme e itsege jaaka go sweufatsa.

Lebenkele la Empanada le le tsamaisiwang ke mong wa lone, kwa Buenos Aires ka 1937.

Se se ne se ikaegile ka kgopolo e e neng e tumile ka nako eo ya gore basweu (bogolo jang ba ba neng ba le mo ditsong tsa Yuropa Bophirima) ke bone fela ba ba neng ba kgona go tsweletsa tlhabologo, fa bontsi jwa batho ba e seng basweu (jaaka batho ba tlhago le batho bantsho) ba ne ba amana le bosetlhogo.[20]

Morekisi wa mo mebileng wa Mo-Argentina yo montsho yo o tumileng ka mazamorra, mo e ka nnang ka 1900.

Le fa go ntse jalo, go farologana le dikgaolo tse dingwe tsa Amerika kwa go neng go na le kgaogano e e maatla ya kgaoganyo ya batho ba e seng basweu ka maiteko a go thibela go tlhakana ga merafe, batho ba maemo ba Argentina ba ne ba akanya gore bana ba e seng basweu ba ka tokafadiwa fa e le ditlamorago tsa go tlhakana le basweu. Mokgwa o o sa tlwaelesegang, go tloga ka bogareng jwa lekgolo la dingwaga la bolesome le boferabongwe, e ne e le batho bao e seng basweu ba ba neng ba santse ba nna mo merafeng e e neng e se karolo ya setso sa Argentina mme e ne e se ka fa tlase ga taolo ya puso, mo ntlheng e, batho ba ba tswang kwa merafeng e le mmalwa ya selegae e gantsi e neng e na le dikgotlhang le yone (ba bangwe, ka fa letlhakoreng le lengwe, ba ne ba bonwa jaaka ba lefatshe leo), ka jalo ba bonwe jaaka dibatana tse di sa siamang tse di neng di thibela kgatelopele le matshosetsi mo setshabeng. Seo se ne sa baka dintwa kgatlhanong le bona (jaaka Phenyo ya Sekaka) tse mo mabakeng a mangwe di neng tsa felela ka dipolao tsa semorafe kgotsa dipolao tsa bontsi, le tsone di tsaya mafatshe a bona.

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Censo 2022". INDEC. https://www.indec.gob.ar/indec/web/Nivel4-Tema-2-41-165.
  2. ↑ "What it's like to be Black and Argentine". BBC News. Archived from the original on 27 August 2021. E nopotswe Phukwi a rogwa ka 2025.
  3. ↑ Gates, Henry Louis. Black in Latin America. New York: New York UP, 2011. Page 2
  4. ↑ Klein, Herbert S. African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean. New York: Oxford UP, 1986. Print.
  5. ↑ "African immigrants in Argentina". Archived from the original on 7 May 2020.
  6. ↑ Mothershead, Sasha (2019). "Los vacíos y las ausencias: Una mirada sobre la presencia de los afrodescendientes en las clases de historia nacional en Buenos Aires, Argentina". Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection (in Spanish) (3227). School for International Training: 13. Archived from the original on 13 May 2023.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Erika Denise Edwards (26 June 2018). "The making of a White nation: The disappearance of the Black population in Argentina". History Compass. E nopotswe Phukwi a rogwa ka 2025.
  8. ↑ Ocoró Luango, Anny (July 2010). "Los negros y negras en la Argentina: entre la barbarie, la exotización, la invisibilización y el racismo de Estado". La Manzana de la Discordia (in Spanish). 5 (2). Universidad del Valle: 48. ISSN 2500-6738. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. E nopotswe Phukwi a rogwa ka 2025.
  9. ↑ Brendan D. O'Fallon and Lars Fehren-Schmitz, "Native Americans experienced a strong population bottleneck coincident with European contact", PNAS, 20 December 2011, 108 (51) 20444-20448; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112563108. E nopotswe Phukwi a rogwa ka 2025.
  10. 1 2 3 Bradley, Keith; Cartledge, Paul (2011). The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Cambridge University Press. p. 583. ISBN 978-0-521-84066-8.
  11. ↑ Frank, Zephyr; Berry, Whitney (2010). "The Slave Market in Rio de Janeiro circa 1869: Context, Movement and Social Experience". Journal of Latin American Geography. 9 (3): 85–110. ISSN 1545-2476. JSTOR 25765334. Archived from the original on 1 December 2022. E nopotswe Phukwi a rogwa ka 2025.
  12. 1 2 "The Middle Passage". www.digitalhistory.uh.edu. Archived from the original on 28 June 2018.
  13. ↑ Eltis, David (1989). "Fluctuations in Mortality in the Last Half Century of the Transatlantic Slave Trade". Social Science History. 13 (3): 315–340. doi:10.1017/S0145553200016424. ISSN 0145-5532. S2CID 147668699 E nopotswe Phukwi a rogwa ka 2025.
  14. ↑ INDEC (2016). "2016 recap of the 1778 argentine census" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 February 2022. E nopotswe Phukwi a rogwa ka 2025.
  15. ↑ La sociedad colonial, José Torre Revello, 1970
  16. ↑ Historia de la nación Argentina, Academia Nacional de la Historia (Argentina), 1944
  17. ↑ Historia Argentina, Volume 2, José María Rosa, 1965
  18. ↑ "Afroargentines: The Argentimes". Archived from the original on 23 November 2009.  E nopotswe Phukwi a rogwa ka 2025.
  19. ↑ Maglioni, Carolina; Stratta, Fernando. "Impresiones profundas: una mirada sobre la epidemia de fiebre amarilla en Buenos Aires" [Deep impressions: a look at the yellow fever epidemic in Buenos Aires]. Revista semestral de datos y estudios demográficos (in Spanish).
  20. ↑ Erika Denise Edwards (19 December 2016). "Pardo is the New Black: The Urban Origins of Argentina's Myth of Black Disappearance". Global Urban History. Archived from the original on 15 May 2021.
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