Jump to content

Battle of Cartagena de Indias

Tsenya dikgolaganyo
Go tswa ko Wikipedia

Ntwa ya Cartagena ya India (Sepanishe: Sitio de Cartagena de Indias, lit. 'Go Dikaganyediwa ga Cartagena ya India') e ne ya diragala ka nako ya Ntwa ya Tsebe ya ga Jenkins ya 1739 go ya go 1748 fa gare ga Spain le Boritane e Kgolo. Ka ntlha ya dikgotlhang tsa kgwebo tse di neng di sa bolo go nna teng, ntwa eno e ne ya lwelwa thata kwa Caribbean; Maborithane a ne a leka go gapa boemakepe jo bogolo jwa Spain mo kgaolong eo, go akaretsa le Porto Bello le Chagres kwa Panama, Havana le Cartagena de Indias kwa Colombia ya gompieno.

Ditlhaselo tse pedi tse di fetileng tsa sesole sa lewatle ka 1740 di ne di paletswe mme mo maitekong a boraro ka Mopitlwe 1741, Maborithane a ne a tlhophile tlhaselo e e kopantsweng ya sesole sa lewatle le ya lefatshe. Morago ga motseletsele wa ditlhaselo tse di sa atlegang mo letsholong, Maborithane a ne a patelesega go boela morago, a sena go boga dintsho tse di fetang 9,500–11,500, bontsi jwa tsone e le malwetse, le ditatlhegelo tse dintsi tsa dithoto.[1] Diyuniti dingwe di ne tsa bolawa ke diperesente di le 80 go ya go di le 90. Phenyo eno e ne ya bontsha gore Spain e ne e kgona go sireletsa boemo jwa yone mme bontsi jwa yone e ne ya fedisa ditiro tsa sesole mo lefelong leno. Dinaga ka bobedi di ne tsa sutisetsa tsepamisomogopolo ya tsona kwa Ntweng e e anameng ya Yuropa ya Tatelano ya Austria mme dintwa di ne tsa fela ka Tumalano ya 1748 ya Aix-la-Chapelle.[2]

Thuto ya dimela, e e kwadilweng ka setlhogo se se reng "Setlhare sa Manzanilla se se tserweng kwa Bocca chica go bontsha / banna gore ba ka nna ba se rema le go robala gaufi le sone, go ne go / tlhomilwe bora kwa godimo ga tante ya ga Sajene mongwe le mongwe, gore masole / a tlwaelane le sone le go se tila... F.M: J.G: (1) the 1 March a? Sekepe sa tlhaselo sa ga Vernon, pele ga ntwa. Maungo a Manzanilla (Hippomane mancinella) a na le botlhole fa a jewa, mme matute a tsona a baka mafofa.

Tumalano ya Utrecht ya 1713, e e neng ya fedisa Ntwa ya Tatelano ya Spain, e ne ya naya bagwebi ba Boritane tetla ya go tsena mo dikoloning tsa Spain kwa Amerika, tse go fitlha jaanong di neng di tswaletswe ka dipholisi tsa kgwebo ke Spain. Seno se ne se akaretsa Asiento de Negros, e leng sekepe se se neng se laola makgoba a le 5 000 ka ngwaga kwa Amerika ya Spain, le Navio de Permiso, se se neng se letla dikepe tse pedi ka ngwaga go tsamaisa ditone di le 500 tsa dithoto nngwe le nngwe ya tsone go rekisiwa kwa Porto Bello kgotsa Veracruz.[3] Dithebolelo tseno di ne tsa abelwa South Sea Company, e e neng ya tsewa ke puso ya Borithane morago ga go tšhona ka 1720.[4] Mo lekgolong la bo18 la dingwaga, gantsi dintwa tsa Yuropa di ne di lwa ka ntlha ya ditshiamelo tsa kgwebo kwa moseja ga mawatle, tse kgopolo e e neng e laola ka nako eo ya mercantilism e neng e di leba e le sedirisiwa se se nang le selekanyo. Se se ne se raya gore fa kgwebisano ya Borithane e ka oketsega, kgwebisano ya Spain e ne e tshwanetse go fokotsega mme ka jalo seabe sa puso e ne e le go thibela kgaisano ya dinaga di sele.[5]

Jaaka Mafora a ne a lemoga mo nakong e e fetileng, ditshenyegelo tse di kwa godimo di ne di raya gore bontsi jwa dipoelo tse di neng di ka bonwa go tswa mo dithebolelong di ne di le mo go tsenyeng dithoto tse di thibetsweng ka bokhukhuntshwane, tse di neng tsa tila dituediso tsa go reka dithoto go tswa kwa ntle mme tsa amoga balaodi ba bokoloniale ba Spain lotseno lo lo neng lo tlhokega thata. Spanish Crown le yona e ne e na le tshwanelo ya 25% ya dipoelo tse di dirilweng ke South Sea Company, tse di neng di duelwa ka sewelo, le fa ba ne ba dumela gore e ne e na le dipoelo tse di seng kana ka sepe. Magareng ga 1717 le 1733, ke dikepe di le robedi fela tsa kgwebo tse di neng tsa romelwa go tswa kwa Boritane go ya kwa Amerika mme asiento e tlhalositswe jaaka "thetso ya kgwebo".[6]

Dikgotlhang tseno di ne tsa okediwa ke go tenega ga Spain ka ntlha ya taolo ya Boritane ya Gibraltar le Menorca, e leng se se neng sa tlhomamisiwa ke Tumalano ya Utrecht. Mo Ntweng ya Maesemane le Masepanishe ya 1727 go ya go 1729, Spain e ne ya dikaganyetsa Gibraltar, fa Boritane yone e ne ya thibela Portobello; maiteko ka bobedi a ne a palelwa mme dinaga tse pedi di ne tsa dira kagiso mo Tumalanong ya Seville mme dikgang tse di neng di bakilwe ke kgotlhang di ne tsa nna di sa rarabololwa. Bagwebi ba Borithane ba ne ba batla go fitlhelela bonolo mebaraka e e nang le poelo ya Spain kwa Caribbean Basin, kwa tlhokego go tswa mo bakoloniale e neng e tlhodile mmaraka o mogolo wa batho ba bantsho.[7]

Masepanishe a ne a letleletswe go palama dikepe tsa Boritane tse di neng di gweba le dikoloni tsa bone kwa Amerika; ka nako ya go batlisisa dithoto tse di seng ka fa molaong ka 1731, Mo-Wales Robert Jenkins, mokapotene wa sekepe sa Rebecca, o ne a bolela gore motlhankedi wa lebopo la Spain o ne a mo kgaola tsebe.[8] Tlhamane e seno se neng sa bontshiwa moragonyana kwa Ntlong ya Dikgosi ga e na motheo wa boammaaruri mme e ne ya itshupa e le mosola mo go tlhotlheletseng setšhaba sa Borithane go tshegetsa ntwa le Spain. Kgatelelo e e tswang mo setšhabeng sa Boritane ya gore go itsisiwe ntwa e ne ya tsoga ka ntlha ya go kopana ga letsholo la sepolotiki la go tlosa Robert Walpole, Tonakgolo yo o neng a direla ka lobaka lo loleele, le keletso ya go nna le phitlhelelo e kgolo ya kgwebo kwa Amerika ya Spain. Ka di 23 Diphalane 1739, Boritane e ne ya bolela ntwa kgatlhanong le Spain.

Sepanishe sa Kharibbea

Kgwebo ya Spain ya Caribbean e ne e na le mafaratlhatlha a boemakepe jo bogolo jo bo nnè: Vera Cruz; Karatagena; Porto Bello; le boemakepe jo bogolo jo kgwebo yotlhe ya boemakepe joo jo tharo bo neng bo tla ka jone, e leng Havana. Ka la bo 22 Ngwanaitseele 1739 Maborithane a ne a gapa Porto Bello mo Motlatsa-Bogosing jwa Granada e Ntšhwa. Tlhaselo ya Boritane e ne e le karolo ya maiteko a go senya ikonomi ya Spain. Boemakepe jo bo neng bo sa sirelediwa sentle bo ne jwa tlhaselwa ke dikepe di le thataro tsa Borithane tsa mola[9]ka fa tlase ga taolo ya Motlatsa-Admiral Edward Vernon.[10] Go nna motlhofo ga go gapa motse ono, le mororo motse ono o ne wa tlogelwa ka bonako fela morago ga ntwa, go ne ga dira gore batho ba itumele kwa Boritane.Vernon o ne a newa taolo ya kotara ya Sesole sa Lewatle sa Bogosi, e e neng e le karolo ya leeto le legolo la dibetsa tse di kopantsweng tsa dibetsa tse di tsamayang ka metsi ka fa tlase ga taolo ka kakaretso ya ga Lord Cathcart.[11] Maikaelelo a ntlha a leeto leno e ne e le go gapa Havana, e leng boemakepe jo bo botlhokwa thata jwa Spain ka gonne e ne e na le mafelo a dikepe di neng di ka tsenngwa mo go one mme, ka 1740, e ne e fetogile lefelo le legolo le le matlhagatlhaga thata la go dira dikepe kwa Spain.[12] Lord Cathcart o tlhokafetse mo tseleng mme go ne go sa itsiwe gore ke mang yo o neng a laola ka kakaretso. Loso lwa ga Cathcart lo ne lwa felela ka go sa dumalane mo taolong ya Borithane, mme lwa thibela kgokagano e e neng e tlhokega mo tirong eno e e raraaneng.[13]

Go romelwa ga sekepe se segolo le setlhopha sa masole go ne go batlilwe ke setšhaba sa Borithane[14]se se neng se eteletswe pele ke batlhotlheletsi ba bagwebi,[15] le South Sea Company segolobogolo, e e neng ya gana go amogela ditumalano tsa go ineela tse di dirilweng ke dipuso tsa Spain le Borithane. Duke wa Newcastle o ne a buelela dikopo tsa setšhaba fa pele ga Palamente. Motlatsa-admiral Vernon e ne e le motshegetsi yo o matlhagatlhaga le yo o tlhoafetseng[16] wa ntwa kgatlhanong le Spain mme o ne a buelela dikgato tsa tlhaselo mo Palamenteng le fa pele ga Admiralty ya Borithane.[17] Tshwetso ya go palama leeto le legolo go ya kwa West Indies e ne ya fitlhelelwa ka Sedimonthole 1739.[18]Walpole, yo o neng a le kgatlhanong le ntwa ka botlalo,[19] le Vernon, yo o neng a rata ditiro tse dinnye tsa setlhopha sa masole, ka bobedi ba ne ba sa kgotsofalela seemo. Vernon, le fa a ne a palelwa ke go tlhasela Cartagena pelenyana, o ne a sa tlhomamisege gore go tlhasela motse o o sireleditsweng thata ka selekanyo se segolo go ne go tla itshupa go atlegile fela jaaka tlhaselo ya gagwe e nnye ya Portobello e ne e atlegile. O ne a tshaba segolobogolo gore go dikaganyediwa ka nako e telele go ne go tla baka go tlhokafala go go bokete ka ntlha ya malwetse, seemo se se tlwaelegileng fa go akanngwa ka kitso ya kalafi ya nako eo.[20]

Maikaelelo

Maikaelelo a Boritane e ne e le go gapa le go boloka[21] boemakepe jo bo nne jwa Spain mo lefelong la Caribbean. Ka go laola boemakepe jono, Maborithane a ne a tla laola ka katlego ditsela tsa go tsena le go tswa kwa Amerika Borwa. Maborithane a ne a tla nna le ditheo tse a neng a ka simolola go tlhasela go tswa mo go tsone go tsena mo nageng e e kwa teng, mme Spain e ne e tla bo e sa kgone go ya kwa boemakepeng jo bo kwa teng jwa metsi mo lotshitshing lo lo kwa botlhaba lwa dikoloni tsa bone tsa Amerika mme ka jalo e ne e sa kgone go tlamela masole a yone a a kwa teng ga naga gape. Taolo ya boemakepe jono gape e ne e tla naya Maborithane sebaka sa go tlhasela moragonyana Mmusomogolo otlhe wa Spain kwa Amerika.[22] Le fa go ntse jalo, Boritane e ne e sena lefelo la go aga le go baakanya dikepe kwa Caribbean, jaaka Spain e ne ya dira ka mafelo a go aga dikepe[23] kwa Havana, mme kwantle ga lefelo la go aga dikepe ga go na sekepe sepe se se neng se ka nna mo lefelong leo ka nako e telele epe fela se sa thubege. Go gapa Havana ka bonako le boemeladikepe jwa yone jo bo omileng go ne go le botlhokwa mme e ne e le maikaelelo a a ratwang ke Newcastle le Sir Charles Wager, Morena wa Ntlha wa Admiralty,[24]fela bodiredi jo bo kgaoganeng jwa Borithane bo ne jwa tlogela tsela ya letsholo go fitlha kwa go Vernon le ba bangwe kwa lekgotleng la ntwa le le neng le tshwerwe kwa Jamaica. Ba ne ba latela Vernon, yo o neng a rata Cartagena jaaka maikaelelo a bone a ntlha ka e ne e le boemakepe jo bo siameng le go ya kwa phefong ya dikago tsa Boritane tse di neng di le teng tsa Caribbean mme Vernon o ne a akanya gore Havana e ne e sireleditswe sentle thata go ka nna setlhogo sa ntlha.[25]

Toropo ya Cartagena ya India

Mmapa wa Cartagena wa India go tswa mo Makasineng wa Monna wa 1740

Cartagena ya Indies e e neng ya tlhongwa ke Pedro de Heredia ka 1533, mo lekgolong la bo18 la dingwaga e ne e le toropo e kgolo e e humileng e e nang le batho ba feta 10 000. E ne e le motsemoholo wa porofense ya Cartagena mme e ne e na le diqhobosheane tse bohlokwa tse neng di sa tswa lokiswa, di atolositswe le ho ntlafatswa ka diqhobosheane tse kantle, dibeteri le mesebetsi. Boemakepe jwa yone, jo bo tsewang ke balebeledi bangwe e le bongwe jwa jo bo gaisang mo lefatsheng, bo ne bo direla dikepe tsa kgwebo (Galeones a Tierra Firme y Peru) tse di neng di kokoana ngwaga le ngwaga kwa Havana go tsamaisa lotseno lo logolo lwa gauta le selefera go tswa kwa New Granada le Peru go ya kwa Spain.[26]

Shelofo e e seng boteng ya lebopo e e neng e tswa mo maboteng a toropo e ne e thibela tlhaselo e e tlhamaletseng go tswa kwa lewatleng, fa metsi a a kwa godimo a ne a kgoreletsa go tlhotlhorega le go tsenya masole a a sa tlwaelang maemo a bosa mo malwetseng.[27] Morago ga go gapiwa ga Cartagena ka 1585 ke sesole sa Seesemane se se neng se eteletswe pele ke Sir Francis Drake, dikago tsa yone tsa phemelo di ne tsa agiwa sešwa ke moenjenere wa Motadiana Battista Antonelli.[28] Go tlhokomologa go ne ga dira gore motlhankedi wa sesole sa Fora Baron de Pointis a thube toropo ka 1697 mme Juan de Herrera y Sotomayor o ne a aga sešwa diphemelo tsa Cartagena pele ga loso lwa gagwe ka 1732.[29]

Motse ono o lebile kwa Caribbean kwa bophirima; kwa borwa koung ya yone e na le matseno a mabedi: Boca Chica (Molomo o Monnye) le Boca Grande (Molomo o Mogolo). Boca Chica go ya ka hisitori e ne e le botseno jwa metsi a a boteng mme e ne e le tshesane thata mo e neng e letla gore go fete sekepe se le sengwe fela ka nako. Monyako ona o ne o sireleditswe ka lehlakoreng le leng ke Fort San Luis e nang le ditshebetso tse nyane tse mmalwa tse pheninsuleng ya Tierra Bomba, mme ka lehlakoreng le leng ke betri ya fascine Baradera. Ka kwa ga Boca Chica go ne go na le letsha la boemakepe jo bo kwa ntle le le nang le tsela ya go tsena mo boemakepeng jo bo kafa teng fa gare ga dipheninsula tse pedi, nngwe le nngwe ya tsone e sireleditswe ke kago ya phemelo. Mabota a motse ka boone a ne a tsentse dikanono di ka nna 160, fa metsesetoropo yone e ne e na le ditlhobolo di le 140. Motse ono o ne o dikologilwe ke mokoti mme dikgoro tsa one di ne di disitswe ke dikago tsa phemelo tse di neng di sa tswa go agiwa. Metsesetoropo le yone e ne e dikologilwe ke mosele.

Mo thoteng e e ka nnang kotara ya maele kwa borwa jwa motse go ne go eme Fort San Lazaro, sekwere sa dikgato di le masome a matlhano mo letlhakoreng le le nang le di-demi-bastion tse tharo. Boemo jwa kago ya phemelo bo ne bo laola motse ka boone le lebala le le dikologileng thaba.[30]Thota e nngwe e nnye e e neng e le gaufi e ne e sireletsa kago ya phemelo, mme go ne go sena motswedi wa metsi a a phepa o o neng o le teng kwa ntle ga Cartagena le kago ya phemelo. Tsela go tswa kwa lefelong le le gaisang la go kotama, lebopo kwa Texar de Gracias, e ne e tsamaya dimaele di le tharo go ya kwa Fort Lazaro.[31]

Mmapa wa karolo ya kgwebo ya West Indies o o dirilweng ka 1741 go tlotla Vernon o bontsha Boca Chica, Cartagena – wa bobedi go tswa kwa tlase ka fa molemeng

Rre Robert Walpole, Tonakgolo ya Boritane e Kgolo, go tswa kwa setudio sa ga Jean-Baptiste van Loo, ka 1740

Ntwa e ne ya tlhoma sesole sa tlhaselo sa Borithane sa dikepe di le 124[32] go akaretsa: dikepe di le 29 tsa mola,[33] [34]dikepe di le 22 tsa ntwa, dikepe tse pedi tsa bookelo, dikepe tse di farologaneng tsa molelo le dikepe tsa dibomo tse di tlhometseng ka palogotlhe ya dikanono di ka nna 2,000, dipalangwa tsa masole di le 80 le dikepe di le 50 tsa kgwebo. Go ne go na le bobotlana badiri ba sesole ba le 27 400, ba mo go bone sesole sa lefatshe se neng se le 12 000[35] go akaretsa le: mephato e mebedi ya masole a a tsamayang ka dinao a ka metlha a Borithane, e leng 15th Foot le 24th Foot, masole a lewatle a le 6 000 a a sa tswang go tlhatlosiwa[36] le masole a a ka nnang 3 600 a Williamthe Gondeema Condeuant ( Mmusisi wa Virginia), ka mephato e mene e e neng e tlhomilwe jaaka Mophato wa Amerika wa ga Gooch, e goroga go tswa kwa dikoloning tsa Amerika Bokone ka dipalangwa tse dingwe di le 40.[37]

Sesole sa Spain se se neng se sireletsa Cartagena se ne se bopilwe ka masole a ka metlha a Spain a le 2 700 go ya go 3 000[38] go tswa kwa mephatong ya Aragon, España le ya Toledo, Lisboa le Navarra e e neng e sa tswa go goroga ka Diphalane 1740, e tlisitswe ke Motlatsa-Amiral Torres; mophato wa bokoloniale o o tswang kwa Cartagena; palo e e sa tlhalosiwang ya batsamaisi ba dikepe; dikhamphani tse tlhano tsa masole le bafudi ba le 600 ba Baindia, gongwe basireletsi ba le 4 000[63] go ya go 6 000,[39]ba ba neng ba tlhokomela dikepe di le thataro tsa mola le dikago tsa phemelo tsa togamaano—ka fa tlase ga taolo ya Mmusisi Mogolo wa Cartagena, Don Blas de Lezo le Motlatsa-Kgosi wa New Gradadaba Esvalana.

Dikgato tsa pele

Leeto le ne le le bonya thata go tswa kwa Boritane. Kwa tshimologong, diphefo tse di neng di le kgatlhanong di ne tsa diegisa go tsamaya ga sekepe go fitlha bontsi jwa dijo tsa mo sekepeng di fela mme ga nna le koketsego e e kwa godimo ya malwetse[40] mo badiring ba dikepe. Go tswa foo, dikgang tsa go tsamaya ga ditlhopha tsa masole a Fora le setlhopha sa masole a Spain di ne tsa baka tiego e nngwe gape fa dikepe tsa Borithane di ne di nonotshiwa go tsiboga.[41]Leeto leno le ne la tlhaselwa ke tlhaelo ya badiri mo sesoleng sa lewatle, se se neng se tlhoka gore go kwalwe mephato e mebedi e e tletseng ya masole a a tsamayang ka dinao, e leng ya bo34 le ya bo36; go tlatsa ditlhokego tsa badiri Cathcart o ne a laelwa ke puso go fetisetsa masole a gagwe a lewatle a le 600 go tlamela banna ba ntwa ka masole a lewatle.[42] Ditiego tseno di ne tsa ja Maborithane dikgwedi di le tharo tsa nako e e botlhokwa ya letsholo. Maamerika a le 3,600 a ne a isiwa kwa Jamaica go tswa kwa New York ka dipalangwa di le 40 tse di neng di patilwe ke banna bangwe ba ntwa ba Borithane mme ba goroga ka bonako thata ka la bo 3 Sedimonthole 1740. Maamerika a ne a le ka fa tlase ga taolo ya ga General Spotswood, Mmusi wa Virginia, yo o neng a tshwanetse go nna molaodi wa bobedi ka fa tlase ga Cathcart mme Go o ne a laolwa ke Moamerika ke Go. Ba ne ba fitlhela fa ba goroga gore ga go na dithulaganyo dipe tse di dirilweng ke puso ya Borithane tsa dijo tsa bone.[43]Go tlhoka dijo le tlelaemete ka bonako fela go ne ga simolola go ama Maamerika, fa sekepe se se tswang kwa Boritane se ne se tshwerwe ke bolwetse jwa typhus, scurvy le dysentery;[44]ka Ferikgong 1741 masole a lefatshe a ne a setse a bolailwe ke batho ba le 500, go akaretsa le Lord Cathcart molaodi wa sesole le. Ka Cathcart le Spotswood ka bobedi ba ne ba sule, taolo ya masole a lefatshe e ne ya ya kwa go Thomas Wentworth, yo o neng a se na maitemogelo ape a go laola ntwa mo nakong e e fetileng. Kwa Jamaica, Maaforika a le 300 a a neng a dirilwe makgoba a ne a okediwa mo loetong lono e le mophato wa tiro. Go diega go go oketsegileng pele le morago ga go tsena mo sekepeng go tswa kwa Jamaica go ne ga ja nako e e botlhokwa thata, go akaretsa le go lwa ka nakwana le sesole sa Fora. Bobedi Maborithane le Masepanishe ba ne ba itse sentle gore fa paka ya dipula ya dikgwedi di le pedi e simolola ka Motsheganong, se se bidiwang "paka ya bolwetse", e e neng e tla simolola ka Motsheganong go fitlha ka Ngwanaitseele,[45]le yone e ne e tla simolola.[46]

Masepanishe a ne a amogetse dithuso mme le one a ne a setse a tshwerwe thata ke malwetse. Go tshwana le Maborithane, mme e seng jaaka go kgoreletsa ditiro, go ne ga nna le go sa dumalane fa gare ga Lezo le Eslava. Ka ho khetheha, Lezo o ne a rata tshireletso e matla haholo, e feletseng ya kanale ya Boca Chica; Kganetso ya ga Eslava e ne ya dira gore go nne le batho ba ba kwa tlase ba bangwe ba ba neng ba sireletsa kwa pele, mme seno sa dira gore Maesemane a kgone go kotama bonolo kwa tshimologong.[47]

Tlhaselo ya Fort San Luis kwa Boca Chica

Sebastián de Eslava, Motlatsa-Kgosi wa New Granada go tswa mo setshwantshong se se takilweng sa lekgolo la bo18 la dingwaga

Leeto la Borithane le gorogile kwa ntle ga Cartagena ka la bo 13 Mopitlwe go sena molaodi ka kakaretso mme ditshwetso di ne di dirwa ke makgotla a ntwa, ka General Wentworth a laola mabotho a lefatshe mme Vernon a laola mabotho a lewatle. Sesole sa lewatle se ne se latlhegetswe ke batsamaisi ba le bantsi ka nako eno ka ntlha ya malwetse a leroborobo mo e leng gore go ne go tlhokega nngwetharong ya masole a lefatshe go tlatsa badiri.[48] Le fa toropo ya Cartagena e ne e lebagane le lewatle ka fa letlhakoreng le lengwe, th .

e lebopo le makhubu a lewatle di ne di le makgwakgwa thata mo go neng go thibela maiteko ape a go le atamela go tswa mo lewatleng. Mosele o mongwe wa go tsena, e leng Boca Grande, o ne o le boteng thata mo o neng o sa kgone go feta dikepe tse di tsamayang ka lewatle. Mosele wa Boca Chica e ne e le one fela o o neng o tsena mo boemakepeng jwa Cartagena ka tsela e e tseneletseng. E ne e tsamaya fa gare ga dipheninsula tse pedi tse di tshesane mme e ne e sireleditswe ka fa letlhakoreng le lengwe ke kago ya phemelo ya San Luis, Boca Chica Castle, ka dikago tse nnè tse di neng di na le dikanono di ka nna 49, dibomo tse tharo tsa sekontiri le setlhopha sa masole a le 300 se se neng se laolwa ke moenjenere yo mogolo, e bong Carlos Desnaux. Boom e ne ya tswa kwa setlhaketlhakeng sa La Bomba go ya kwa pheninsuleng e e kwa borwa e mo go yone go neng go na le Fort San Jose e e nang le dikanono di le 13 le masole a le 150. Gape e e neng e tshegetsa botseno e ne e le dikepe tse thataro tsa Spain.[49]

Pele a tlhomama go fologa, Vernon o ne a didimatsa dibeteri tsa dikago tsa phemelo tsa Chamba, San Felipe le Santiago tse di neng di sirelediwa ke Lorenzo Alderete go tswa kwa Malaga. Morago ga go tlhasela kago ya phemelo ya Punta Abanicos kwa Setlhaketlhakeng sa Barú, e e neng e sireleditswe ke Jose Polanco Campuzano go tswa kwa Santo Domingo [50][51]le beke ya go boma, Maborithane a ne a rulaganya go kotama gaufi le mosele o monnye wa go tsena, Boca Chica, ka dibomo di le 300. Bafemedi ba Spain ba dikago tse pedi tse dinnye, tse di gaufi, San Iago le San Philip, ba ne ba lelekwa ke karolo ya dikepe tse tharo tsa sekepe se se neng se le ka fa tlase ga Chaloner Ogle se se neng sa bolawa ke batho ba ka nna 120 mme Shrewsbury e le nosi e ne ya latlhegelwa ke batho ba le 100 ba ba bolailweng le ba ba gobetseng mmogo le go tsaya tshenyo e e masisi go tswa mo San Lu[52]. Di-grenadier di ne tsa kotama maitseboa ao mme tsa latelwa ka 22 Mopitlwe ke masole otlhe a naga a Borithane: mephato e mebedi e e tlwaelegileng le mephato e merataro ya masole a lewatle.[53] Mo masoleng a lefatshe a Amerika, ke a le 300 fela a a neng a letlelelwa go ya kwa lotshitshing lwa lewatle ka bontsi jwa masole a Amerika a mephato e mene a ne a phatlaladitswe go ya go direla mo dikepeng tsa mola go emisetsa ditatlhegelo tsa ga Vernon mo batsamaisi ba[54] dikepe mme a ne a seyo go dira ditiro tsa ambibious.[55] Ba ne ba latelwa mo malatsing a le mmalwa ke ditlhobolo. Fa sesole se sena go thibelela, Maamerika le Majamaica ba ne ba aga beteri mo dibekeng tse pedi[80] mme ditlhobolo tsa yone tsa diponto di le masome a mabedi le 24 tsa simolola go itaya kago ya phemelo. [56]Setlhopha sa dikepe di le tlhano, se se nang le Boyne, Prince Frederick, Hampton Court, Tilbury, le Suffolk, se se neng se eteletswe pele ke Commodore Richard Lestock kwa lotshitshing lwa lewatle, le sone se ne sa leka go itaya kago ya phemelo gore se ineele malatsi a mabedi mme se ne sa nna le se se maswe go gaisa, sa dira gore se se ka sa ama kago ya phemelo mme sa bolaya banna ba le bantsi mme ba bolaya batho ba le bararo.

Dithunya tsa Borithane tse di neng di le mo lefatsheng, morago ga malatsi a le mararo a go thuntsha bosigo le motshegare, di ne tsa thuba mo kagong e kgolo ya phemelo[57] fa karolo ya dikepe e ne e thusa. Karolo e nngwe ya dikepe e ne ya lwantsha dikepe tsa Spain, tse pedi tsa tsone Lezo a neng a di thunya mme e nngwe, e leng Galicia, o ne a e tshuba ka molelo. Dikepe tse pedi tsa Spain tse di neng di thubegile di ne tsa thiba mosele ka bontlhabongwe mme Galicia e ne ya gapiwa ke Maborithane pele e ka nwela. Maborithane a ne a tlhasela Fort San Luis ka lefatshe le lewatle ka la bo 5 Moranang. Masole a a tsamayang ka dinao a ne a gatela pele mo lefelong le le thubegileng; le fa go ntse jalo, Masepanishe a ne a setse a boetse morago kwa dikago tsa phemelo tse di mo boemakepeng jo bo kafa teng. Mo bekeng e e latelang, sesole se se neng se kotama se ne sa tsena gape mo sekepeng mme sa tsena mo boemakepeng. Tiro kgatlhanong le Boca Chica e ne ya ja sesole sa Borithane batho ba le 120 ba bolawa le go gobala, mo godimo ga moo ba le 250 ba ne ba bolawa ke malwetse a letshoroma le le serolwana le malaria, mme balwetse ba le 600 ba ne ba robadiwa kwa bookelong.[58]

Tlhaselo ya Kago ya phemelo ya San Lazaro

Sefikantswe se se kwa Plaza de Colón (Madrid) se se agilweng go gopola Moeteledipele wa Sekepe sa Mo-Spain e bong Blas de Lezo

Lekgotla le le latelang la ntwa le ne la swetsa ka gore le leke go kgaoganya Cartagena le letlhakore la naga ka go tlhasela Fort San Lazaro, e mo dipegong dingwe e bidiwang San Felipe de Barajas. Ka go gapiwa ga San Luis le ditiro tse dingwe tse di kwa ntle tsa go itshireletsa, dikepe tseno di ne tsa feta mo moseleng wa Boca Chica go tsena mo letshaneng le le neng le dira boemakepe jwa Cartagena. Masepanishe a ne a ikgogela morago go ya go kokoanya masole a bone kwa Fort San Lazaro le kwa toropong. Vernon o ne a tlhotlheletsa Wentworth go tlhasela kago ya phemelo e e sa akanyediwang sentle, e e sa rulaganngwang sentle, e leng lefelo le le nonofileng le le kwa ntle la Cartagena, le Vernon a neng a gana go le tshegetsa ka dikepe di dira maipato a a rileng ka boteng jwa boemakepe. Dikepe di ne tsa tlosa lebopo ka molelo wa dikanono mme Wentworth o ne a kotama ka Moranang 16 kwa Texar de Gracias.[59]

Fa Maborithane a sena go bona boemakepe jo bo ka fa gare le go gapa dikago dingwe tse di kwa ntle, de Lezo o ne a nonotsha kago e kgolo ya bofelo ya Fort San Lazaro ka go epa mosele go e dikologa le go tlosa tshimo ya molelo fa a atamela. O ne a tshwanelwa ke go tshwara kago ya phemelo jaaka e ne e laola motse[84] mme, mo diatleng tsa Borithane, go boma go ne go tla pateletsa Cartagena go ineela mo nakong e khutshwane. Lezo o ne a sireletsa mosele ono ka masole a ka nna 650 mme a sireletsa kago ya phemelo ka masole a mangwe a le 300, fa a ntse a bolokile masole a le 200 a lewatle le batsamaisi ba dikepe. Maborithane a ne a gatela pele go tswa kwa lotshitshing lwa lewatle mme a tshwanelwa ke go feta leswe le le tshesane. Koo ba ne ba kopana le sesole sa Spain se se neng se ganetsana ka bokhutshwane le temana eo pele ga se ineela.[60]

Masole a lewatle a ga Gooch, mophato wa bo43[61] wa dinao go tswa mo Bukeng ya Diaparo ya 1740

Moenjenere a le mongwe fela wa Moboritane yo o neng a na le letsholo leno o ne a bolailwe kwa Fort San Luis; ga go ope yo o neng a ka aga beteri go thuba mabota. Borithane

ided go tlhasela fort ka tlhamalalo ka coup de main, mabota a sa thubiwa, ka nako ya tlhaselo ya bosigo. Tlhaselo ya bosigo e ne e tla letla tlhaselo ya letlhakore le le kwa bokone la kago ya phemelo e e neng e lebile Cartagena ka gonne, mo lefifing, ditlhobolo tsa Cartagena di ne di ka se kgone go ntsha molelo o o tshegetsang. Letlhakore le le kwa borwa le ne le na le mabota a a kwa tlase le a a kotsi thata mme di-grenadier di ne di tla leka go thunya ka bonako le go rwala diparapet. Mme tlhaselo e ne ya simolola thari mme go gatela pele ga ntlha mo go Lazaro go ne ga dirwa gaufi le mahube, ka 4:00 mo mosong 20 Moranang, ka tsholofelo e e latlhegileng ya banna ba le 50 ba ba tlhophilweng ba ba neng ba latelwa ke di- grenadier di le 450 tse di neng di laolwa ke Mokolonele Wynyard. Setlhopha se segolo e ne e le banna ba le 1 000 ba mephato ya bo 15 le ya bo 24 e e neng e laolwa ke Colonel Grant, ka nako eo e ne e le setlhopha se se tlhakaneng go tswa mo mephatong ya bo 34 le ya bo [62] le Maamerika mangwe a a sa tlhomelang a tshotse diterei tsa go tlhoma mabota a a kwa godimo a kago ya phemelo le diphuthelwana tsa boboa[63] go tlatsa. Kwa bofelong, go ne ga nna le polokelo ya masole a lewatle a le 500 ka fa tlase ga Mokolonele Wolfe.[64]

Kholomo e ne e eteletswe pele ke batho ba babedi ba Spain ba ba neng ba tshaba e le bakaedi ba ba neng ba timetsa Maesemane kwa letlhakoreng le le kwa tlase le le nang le dipota tse di kwa borwa. Wynyard o ne a gogelwa kwa tseleng e e tlhomameng mme, fa di-grenadier di ntse di tlhatloga ka bonako mo mokgokoloseng, ba ne ba amogelwa ka volley e e bolayang ya molelo wa musket ka dijarata/dimitara di le masome a mararo go tswa kwa Masepeneng mo ditlhomesong. Di- grenadier di ne tsa tsena mo moleng mme tsa gatela pele, di rekisa molelo ka iketlo. Mo sefatlhegong sa bokone, Grant o ne a wa go sa le gale mme masole a a senang baeteledipele a ne a thuntshana le Masepanishe. Bontsi jwa Maamerika ba ne ba latlhela ditere tse ba neng ba di tshotse mme ba iphitlha. Ditere tseo tse di neng tsa tlisiwa kwa pele di ne di le dikhutshwane thata ka dimetara di le 3.[65]Morago ga ura, letsatsi le ne la tlhaba, mme fa ditlhobolo tsa Cartagena di ntse di thuntsha Maesemane, dikgobalo di ne tsa oketsega. Ka 8:00 mo mosong, fa setlhopha sa masole a a tsamayang ka dinao a Spain a a neng a tswa kwa dikgorong tsa Cartagena a ne a tshosetsa go kgaola Maesemane mo dikepeng tsa bone, Wentworth o ne a laela gore ba boe morago. Tlhaselo e ne ya palelwa, ka tatlhegelo ya dikgobalo di le 600 go tswa mo sesoleng se se ka nnang 2 000. Bolwetse le malwetse di ne tsa oketsa dikgobalo tsa letsholo leno. Ka nako e e neng e dikologile tlhaselo ya Fort San Lazaro, masole a lefatshe a Wentworth a ne a fokodiwa go tswa go 6,500 go ya go 3,200.[66][67]

Go ikgogela morago ga Borithane

Leano la ga Don Blas de Lezo e ne e le gore, ka ntlha ya maatla a a neng a le kgatlhanong le ene, o ne a tla leka go dira go ikgogela morago ga ntwa le go diegisa Maesemane nako e telele go fitlha paka ya dipula e simolola kwa bokhutlong jwa Moranang. Dipula tse di neng di na mo boboatsatsi di ne di tla diegisa letsholo dikgwedi tse dingwe tse pedi. Ho feta moo, ha sera se ne se tlameha ho dula nako e telele se tletse haholo dikepeng lewatleng le sebakeng se bulehileng lefatsheng, ho ne ho na le kgonahalo e kgolo ya hore phepelo e sa lekanang, ho se phutholohe mme haholoholo malwetse e be balekane ba hae le dira tse bolayang tsa Mabrithani. De Lezo o ne a thusiwa ke lenyatso le Vernon le Wentworth ba neng ba na le lone mo go yo mongwe, le le neng la thibela tirisanommogo ya bone morago ga go kotama ga ntlha.[68]

Selo se sengwe sa botlhokwa se se neng sa dira gore masole a Boritane a fenngwe e ne e le gore dikago tsa phemelo tsa Cartagena di ne di baakantswe le go tokafadiwa mo ngwageng o o fetileng. Le fa De Lezo a ne a gateletswe go fitlha kwa selekanyong, leano la gagwe le ne la bereka mme Masepanishe a ne a fenya. Dipula di ne tsa tla mme Maesemane a tshwanelwa ke go palama dikepe tsa bone, kwa mafelo a a gaufi a neng a dira gore malwetse a bolaye le go feta. Ka April 25, Vernon le lekgotla ba ne ba swetsa ka gore ba boe kwa Jamaica, mme mo bogareng jwa May ba ne ba seyo. Ka 7 Motsheganong, ke banna ba le 1 700 fela ba masole a lefatshe ba ba neng ba tshwanelega go direla mme ba ne ba sa fete 1 000 ba le mo seemong sa go kotama kgatlhanong le mmaba; mo lobakeng lwa kgwedi morago ga go tswa kwa Cartagena, ba bangwe ba le 1 100 ba ne ba swa. Maatla a Borithane a ne a fokodiwa go nna 1,400 mme a Amerika go nna 1,300.[69]

Leeto le ntwa di tsere malatsi a le 67 mme tsa felela ka gore dikepe tsa Borithane di ikgogele morago ka go fenngwa, ka batho ba le 18,000 ba ba suleng kgotsa ba ba sa kgoneng go dira, bontsi jwa bone e le ka ntlha ya malwetse.[70] Masepanishe le bona ba ne ba tshwerwe thata ke malwetse go akaretsa le Blas de Lezo ka boene, yo o neng a tlhokafala dibeke di le mmalwa morago ga go lwala ka ntlha ya sebetso go tswa mo ditopong tse di neng di sa fitlhwa.[71]Mo godimo ga moo palogotlhe ya dikepe di le 50 tsa Borithane di ne tsa latlhega, tsa senyega thata, tsa golafala kgotsa tsa tlogelwa ka ntlha ya go tlhoka badiri. Go ne go na le dikepe di le lesomerobongwe tsa mola o o neng wa senyega, dikepe di le nne tsa ntwa le dipalangwa di le masome a mabedi le bosupa di ne tsa latlhega.[72]Mo bakoloning ba le 3 600 ba Amerika, ba ba neng ba ithaopile, ba gogelwa ke ditsholofetso tsa lefatshe[73] le dithaba tsa gauta,[74] bontsi bo ne jwa bolawa ke letshoroma le le serolwana, bolwetse jwa letshoroma, le tlala e e tlhamaletseng. Ke ba le 300 fela[98] ba ba neng ba boela gae, go akaretsa le Lawrence Washington, yo o neng a fetola leina la tshingwana ya gagwe ya Virginia, Thaba ya Vernon ka leina la Molaodi wa Lesole Vernon.

Mo kgatong ya ntlha ya ntwa, fa masole a Spain a ne a boela morago go tswa kwa mafelong a a farologaneng a go itshireletsa go ya go ikopanya gape mo kagong e kgolo ya phemelo ya San Lazaro, a utlwa phenyo e le mo diatleng tsa gagwe Vernon o ne a romela morongwa, Mokapotene Laws, kwa Boritane go itsise Kgosi George ka go tsena ga masole a Boritane mo koung e e kafa teng ka May7 . Intaseteri ya dikgopotso, ka go lebelela phenyo e e neng ya se ka ya tla, e ne e ntse e tshwaregile ka go dira dimmentlele tsa segopotso tsa tiragalo eno. Di ne di dirwa thata ke batho ba ba dirang dikonopo, ba ba neng ba kopolola ditlhamo di le mmalwa tsa motheo mme ka kakaretso ke tsa boleng jo bo kwa tlase thata. Dikokoanyo tse dikgolo tsa dimmentlele tseno di ka bonwa kwa United Kingdom le kwa Yunibesithing

ted Dinaga. China ya segopotso le yona e ne ya tlhagisiwa fela go falola ga yona go nnile sewelo. Mo go nngwe ya dimmentlele Admiral Vernon o ne a bontshiwa a lebile kwa tlase mo go moeteledipele wa Spain yo o "fentsweng" Don Blas de Lezo yo o neng a lebega a khubame. Pina ya motlha wa segompieno e ne ya tlhamiwa ke mosesi wa sekepe go tswa kwa Shrewsbury e e neng ya keteka phenyo pele ga nako:

Kgalalelo ya ga Vernon; kgotsa, Masepanishe a Fenya.

E le pego ya go tsewa ga Carthagena ke Motlatsa-Moeteledipele Vernon...

"...mme toropo ya ineela[ed]

Go Molaodi wa Sesole Vernon, petso ya Spain".[75]

Mabaka a magolo a go fenngwa ga Maborithane e ne e le go palelwa ga Maborithane go bona boeteledipele jo bo kopaneng morago ga gore molaodi yo mogolo wa sesole, Mojenerale Charles Cathcart, a bolawe ke bolwetse jwa dysentery mo tseleng; go palelwa ke go tlhoma ditlhobolo le dikolo tsa go dikaganyetsa gaufi le Cartagena; dikgoreletsi tse di dirilweng ke Vernon tse di neng di thibela go nna le seabe ga dikepe tsa gagwe tsa mola go tshegetsa masole a a tsamayang ka dinao; le ditiro tse di atlegileng tsa Spain tse di dirilweng ke motlatsakgosi Sebastián de Eslava, Moeteledipele wa Sesole Blas de Lezo le Mokolonele Carlos Suivillars.[76]

Ga go na bosupi jwa tleleimi e e dirilweng mo dingwageng tsa bosheng ke dibuka tse di gatisitsweng kwa Spain ya gore Admiral Vernon o ne a romela lekwalo kwa go Blas de Lezo a re "Re tsere tshwetso ya go boela morago, mme re tla boela kwa Cartagena fa re sena go tsaya dithuso kwa Jamaica", e go neng go twe Blas de Lezo King o ne a laela gore Cargen a tle: sekepe se se botoka le se segolo, ka gonne sa gago jaanong se siametse fela go tsamaisa magala go tswa kwa Ireland go ya kwa Lontone".[77] Magala a ne a sa rwalwe go tswa kwa Ireland go ya kwa Engelane, mme go ne ga nna jalo ka tsela e e farologaneng.

Ditlamorago

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]

Morago ga dikgang tsa masetlapelo puso ya ga Robert Walpole e ne ya phutlhama ka bonako.[78]Spain e ne ya nna e laola dikoloni tsa yone tse di botlhokwa thata mo togamaanong, go akaretsa le boemakepe jo bo botlhokwa thata kwa Caribbean jo bo neng jwa thusa go sireletsa Spanish Main le kgwebisano ya yone ya go kgabaganya Atlantic le Spain.

Dikgang tsa go fenngwa ga Boritane di ne tsa fitlha kwa Yuropa kwa bokhutlong jwa June, 1741 mme tsa nna le ditlamorago tse dikgolo thata. E ne ya dira gore George II wa Boritane e Kgolo, yo o neng a ntse a dira jaaka motsereganyi fa gare ga Frederick yo Mogolo wa Prussia le Maria Theresa yo o neng a tshegetsa Austria ka ntlha ya go gapa Silesia ke Prussia ka Sedimonthole 1740, a gogele morago dinetefaletso tsa Boritane tsa go tshegetsa Dikiletso tsa Pragmatic ka dibetsa. Seo se ne sa rotloetsa Fora le Spain, balekane ba Bourbon, ba ba neng ba senolwa gore le bone ba ne ba dirisana le Prussia, go tsamaya ka sesole kgatlhanong le Austria e jaanong e neng e le kwa thoko.[79] Ntwa e kgolo le e e anameng, Ntwa ya Tatelano ya Austria, jaanong e ne ya simolola.

Ditatlhegelo tse di gakgamatsang tse di neng tsa utlwisiwa ke Maborithane di ne tsa tsenya ditiro tsotlhe tse di latelang tsa ga Vernon le Wentworth kwa Caribbean mo kotsing mme bontsi jwa tsone di ne tsa felela ka go palelwa go go botlhoko[80] le fa go ne go na le masole a le 1 000 a a tswang kwa Jamaica le masole a le 3 000 a a tsamayang ka dinao go tswa kwa Borithane.[81]Vernon le Wentworth ka bobedi ba ne ba busediwa kwa Boritane ka Lwetse 1742, mme Chaloner Ogle a laola sekepe se se neng se lwala thata se se neng se na le batsamaisi ba sone ba ba kwa tlase ga halofo ba ba neng ba tshwanelega go dira tiro.[82] Ka nako ya fa letsholo la Caribbean le fela ka Motsheganong 1742 diperesente di le masome a robongwe tsa sesole di ne di sule ka ntlha ya ntwa le malwetse.[83]Ditlhaselo tse dingwe di le mmalwa tsa Borithane di ne tsa diragala kwa Caribbean mme di ne tsa se ka tsa ama boemo jwa lefatshe le dipolotiki kwa Atlantic. Masole a a bokoa a Borithane a a neng a eteletswe pele ke Charles Knowles a ne a tlhasela lebopo la Venezuela, a tlhasela La Guaira ka Tlhakole 1743 le Puerto Cabello ka Moranang, le fa go se na tiro epe e e neng ya atlega thata.[84]

Go palelwa ke go tsaya Cartagena go ne ga dira gore se se neng se setse sa masole a lewatle a a neng a abetswe Vernon se nne lobaka lo loleele kwa Caribbean. Seno se ne sa felela ka gore setlhopha se se neng se koafetse sa Mediterranean se se ka sa kgona go thibela Masepanishe go romela masole a le 25 000 gabedi go ya kwa Italy ka Ngwanaitseele le Sedimonthole 1741. E ne e le fela fa Commodore Richard Lestock, molaodi wa nngwe ya ditlhopha tsa ga Vernon kwa Cartagena, a boela kwa Yuropa ka dikepe go tswa kwa sekepeng sa Caribbean, fa Boritane e ne ya nonotsha go nna teng ga yone kwa Mediterranean.[85]

Rahisitori Reed Browning o tlhalosa leeto la Borithane la Cartagena jaaka "masetlapelo a boeleele" mme o nopola Horace Walpole, yo rraagwe e neng e le mmaba yo o botlhoko wa ga Vernon, a kwala jaana ka 1744: "Re setse re latlhegetswe ke dimilione di le supa tsa madi le glosure ya banna ba le dikete di le masome a mararo mo setlhareng seno sotlhe sa Spain le . ya go nna le tlhogo ya ga Admiral Vernon mo matshwaong a matlo a bojalwa." Mokwalo o o mo segopotsong sa mmabole sa ga Vernon kwa Westminster Abbey o bontsha kganetsano e e botlhoko fa gare ga masole a lewatle le a lefatshe fa Cartagena e ne e dikaganyeditswe: "O ne a fenya Chagre, mme kwa Carthagena a fenya go ya bokgakaleng jo masole a lewatle a neng a ka rwala phenyo ka jone".[86]

Ka 2014, fa a ne a le mo loetong lwa gagwe lwa segosi kwa Colombia, Kgosana Charles ka tirisanommogo le balaodi ba toropo o ne a bula polaka e e neng e gopola batho ba ba bolailweng ke Borithane mo ntweng. Morago ga dingongorego tsa baagi ba toropo tsa gore basireletsi ba Spain ga ba a umakiwa mo letlapeng leno le gore le ne le beilwe gaufi le sefikantswe sa ga de Lezo, balaodi ba toropo ba ne ba swetsa ka gore ba tlose letlapa leo, le ka nako eo le neng le setse le sentswe. Ratoropo Dionisio Velez o boletse gore e ne e se maikaelelo a gagwe go "tlhotlheletsa kganetsano e, kgotsa go utlwisa batho botlhoko"[87]

  1. ↑ Fortescue 1899, pp. 72–79, gives a detailed account of the rapid and devastating withering away of the land forces to disease.
  2. ↑ Browning, Reed (1994). The War of the Austrian Succession. Sutton Publishing. p. 393. ISBN 978-0750905787.
  3. ↑ Browning 1993, p. 21
  4. ↑ Rivas Ibañez 2008, p. 16.
  5. ↑ Rothbard, Murray (23 April 2010). "Mercantilism as the Economic Side of Absolutism". Mises.org. Good summary of the concept. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
  6. ↑ Anderson, MS (1976). Europe in the Eighteenth Century, 1713–1783: (A General History of Europe). Longman. p. 293. ISBN 978-0582486720.
  7. ↑ Richmond 1920, p. 2
  8. ↑ Harbron, John D. (1998). Trafalgar and the Spanish navy. Conway Maritime Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-87021-695-3.
  9. ↑ Beatson 1804, Vol. III, p. 17, 3 ships: 70 guns, 2 ships: 60 guns, 1 ship: 50 guns.
  10. ↑ Ruiz, Bruce. "Admiral Vernon and portobello". Panama History.com. Archived from the original on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 24 September 2007
  11. ↑ Browning 1993, p. 22, "They [the British] had over 120 ships of the line in their fleet, while France had but 50 and Spain 40". In Mitch Williamson's article, British Naval Supremacy: Some Factors Newly Considered 2002, he states the Royal Navy's War Establishment Manpower at the end of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748 is 44,861—so Vernon's total of over 15,000 sailors represents at least 25% of Royal Navy manpower.
  12. ↑ Harbron 2004, pp. 15–17. Havana built nearly 50% more Ships of the Line than any other Spanish dockyard during the 18th century.
  13. ↑ Rodger 2005, p. 237. "... his [Vernon's] ruthless exploitation of the army, his unscrupulous skill at claiming credit for every success and blaming the soldiers for every failure, eventually destroyed any possibility of harmonious combined operations."
  14. ↑ Rodger 2005, pp. 237–238, "The government was unable to resist the public clamor for a major expedition to the Caribbean." Also: Harbron 2004, p. 237.
  15. ↑ Richmond 1920, p. 12.
  16. ↑ Le Fevre & Harding 2000, pp. 163–164.
  17. ↑ Ford 1907, p. 124, "Destroy their settlements in America, and Spain falls. My opinion is that a strong squadron be sent to the West Indies, to distress the enemy in their very vitals, to destroy their mines, to seize their treasures, to take their ships, to ruin their settlements. Let them be attacked in as many places as possible at the same time...If once Porto-Bello and Cartagena were taken, then all will be lost to them." Vernon at the Admiralty meeting.
  18. ↑ Richmond 1920, p. 101.
  19. ↑ Ford 1907, pp. 143–144.
  20. ↑ Rodger 2005, p. 236.
  21. ↑ Pares 1963, pp. 66, 68, 92–93. Also, Le Fevre & Harding 2000, p. 168, "...by taking and holding some of her (Spain's) important colonies.". Similarly, Richmond 1920, p. 16.
  22. ↑ Ford 1907, p. 140, "In that way there would have been secured for Britain the whole trade with the coast of Chili (sic) and Peru, and with the western coast of Mexico, thus crippling the power of Spain...".
  23. ↑ Rodger 2005, p. 233.
  24. ↑ Rivas Ibañez 2008, p. 156.
  25. ↑ Dull 2009, p. 46. Also, Rivas Ibañez 2008, p. 180.
  26. ↑ Harbron 2004, pp. 13–14.
  27. ↑ Marks 1999, pp. 20–21.
  28. ↑ Marks 1999, p. 22.
  29. ↑ Marks 1999, p. 25
  30. ↑ Beatson 1804, Vol. III, pp. 24–25.
  31. ↑ Rivas Ibañez 2008, pp. 185–186
  32. ↑ Brooke, James (8 October 1995). "Cartagena, Caribbean Jewel". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 9 February 2010. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  33. ↑ Beatson 1804, pp. 25–27. List of ships of the line under Vernon is 8 of 80 guns, 5 of 70 guns, 14 of 60 guns, 2 of 50 guns and 22 frigates and other warships. Additionally, the list gives a detail breakdown of the 12,000 troops: the 15th and 24th regiments of foot, 2,000; 6,000 marines; 2,500 American and some others. Ship of the Line crews total 11,000+, no numbers are given for the frigate and transport crews on that page. On the following page a list of frigates and their crews is given for the Cartagena expedition that corresponds to that of Vernon's fleet list with a few minor variations. The total for Royal Navy sailors then (at least as paper strength, full complements) is: 15,398. This total does not include the 12,000 soldiers, nor any civilian seamen, nor the crews for the over 120 transports.
  34. ↑ Hume, David. The History of England, London, 1825, p. 109, "...with an equal number of frigates, fire ships, and bomb ketches...". When compared with a nearly contemporary amphibious expedition described in Pritchard 1995, p. 4 as: 10 ships of the line, 45 troop transports and some 10,000 sailors and soldiers it can be seen that Vernon's fleet has nearly three times as many ships of the line and nearly three times the soldiers and sailors and that by analogy Vernon's fleet would have around three times the total ships or more, i.e. at least 165 ships.
  35. ↑ Smollett & Hume 1848, p. 392.
  36. ↑ Smollett & Hume 1848, p. 392
  37. ↑ Hart 1922, p. 139. Similarly, Trustees of the Public Libraries, et al. The State Records of North Carolina, Vol. XI, (1895–1907), Goldsboro, NC: Nash brothers, pp. 42–45, state in a note that the number of companies which actually sailed was 36 containing 3,600 men. Also, Marshall & Low 2001, p. 119, gives 3,600 and p. 302. gives 3,500.
  38. ↑ Letter to Torres, 13 Jan. 1741, AGS, Estado Francia, Legajo 4408: "Al mismo tiempo y por propio conducto, ha participado que por carta de 28 de noviembre escrita desde Londres se daba por sujeto apreciable que se habían mudado las instrucciones de M. Carthcart que la escuadra del almirante Ogle que conduce las tropas de su cargo en lugar de ir a la Habana ira a Cartagena, por hallarse los ingleses bien informados de que no hemos enviado más de 2000 hombres y 600 reclutas"
  39. ↑ Lemaitre, Eduardo (1998). Breve Historia de Cartagena. Medellin: Editorial Colina. ISBN 9586380904.
  40. ↑ Fortescue 1899, p. 62, "The fleet was very sickly...". Baugh 2002, p. 140: "The worst naval typhus epidemic of the century occurred between August 1739 and October 1740 ... 25,000 fell ill and were sent to hospital ships, sick quarters and hospitals; of these, 2750 died and 1965 deserted." This represents over 50% of the seamen employed by the Navy at that time. Similarly, Rodger 2005, p. 308, "A serious epidemic [of typhus] over the hard winters of 1739–41 wrecked the Navy's mobilization, with men falling sick faster than they could be recruited." Typhus was generally a cold weather disease.
  41. ↑ Rivas Ibañez 2008, p. 166, relates reports that October 1000 sailors and 400 soldiers were sick.
  42. ↑ Fortescue 1899, pp. 61–62
  43. ↑ Fortescue 1899, p. 62
  44. ↑ The Sick and Hurt Board recorded nearly 10,000 men sick ashore in England alone in 1740.
  45. ↑ Rivas Ibañez 2008, p. 180, "... Vernon told Cathcart that it was crucial to avoid the sickly season, which lasted from May to November.".
  46. ↑ Rodger 2005, pp. 160–161. Fortescue 1899, p. 68. Baugh 2002, pp. 140–141
  47. ↑ Anon 2008 gives details of conflict between Lezo and Eslava.
  48. ↑ Dull 2009, p. 46, "... more than a third of them were needed to fill out the crews...". Also, Le Fevre & Harding 2000, p. 169.
  49. ↑ Ford 1907, p. 153.
  50. ↑ Hargreaves-Mawdsley, W.N. (1968). Spain under the Bourbons, 1700–1833: A collection of documents. Macmillan & Co. pp. 100–102.
  51. ↑ "The Battle of Cartagena de Indias". Grandes Batallas. Archived from the original on 20 April 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.
  52. ↑ Smollett & Roscoe 1844, p. 606
  53. ↑ Ford 1907, p. 154. Also, The London Gazette, Number 8015, May 1741, p. 1, "... the two Regiments of Harrison and Wentworth, and the six Regiments Marines landed without opposition.".
  54. ↑ Offen, Lee G. (2009). Gooch's Regiment 1740–1742, America's First Marines. Veterans Publishing Systems. ISBN 978-0977788415.
  55. ↑ Offen 2009, pp. 37–38.
  56. ↑ Offen 2009, p. 31.
  57. ↑ Smollett & Roscoe 1844, p. 606
  58. ↑ Fortescue 1899, p. 66
  59. ↑ Fortescue 1899, pp. 66–69. Beatson 1804, Vol. I, p. 101
  60. ↑ Fortescue 1899, p. 67. Beatson 1804, Vol. I, p. 102
  61. ↑ released from duty as ships' crew
  62. ↑ released from duty as ships' crew
  63. ↑ Similar to a sand bag but filled with wool 5 feet high 15 inches in diameter. Duane, William. A Military Dictionary: Or, Explanation of the Several Systems of Discipline, Philadelphia, 1810, p. 639.
  64. ↑ The father of James Wolfe of Quebec fame
  65. ↑ Smollett & Hume 1848, p. 394, "...each proved more eager for the disgrace of his rival than zealous for the honour of the nation." Also, Fortescue 1899, p. 79,"Nevertheless, it was Vernon who was mainly responsible for the fatal friction between the army and the navy.".
  66. ↑ Similarly, The Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. 11, 1741, p. 331. Also, Fortescue 1899, p. 72.
  67. ↑ Samuel 1923, pp. 236–242, 'Admiral Vernon, "...now reinforced by twenty-five ships of the line and 9,000 soldiers...of the six thousand that had been landed more than half were either dead or dying." Lord Mahon. History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles, Vol. III, Boston, 1853, p. 64, "... he found, in less than two days, his effective force (emphasis added) dwindle from 6600 to 3200 men." Similarly,  "... they were reduced from 6,645 to 3,200, of whom 1200 were Americans, and unfit for service.".
  68. ↑ Smollett & Hume 1848, p. 394, "...each proved more eager for the disgrace of his rival than zealous for the honour of the nation." Also, Fortescue 1899, p. 79,"Nevertheless, it was Vernon who was mainly responsible for the fatal friction between the army and the navy.".
  69. ↑ Fortescue 1899, pp. 73–74. Similarly, Hart 1922, p. 151, "So great were the losses to the troops through disease and battle that not over one third of the land troops appear to have returned with the fleet to Jamaica.".
  70. ↑ Fortescue 1899, pp. 72–79, gives a detailed account of the rapid and devastating withering away of the land forces to disease.
  71. ↑ Meisel Ujueta, Alfonso (1982). Blas de Lezo:vida legendaria del marino Vasco. Barranquilla, Colombia: Litografía Dovel. p. 1982
  72. ↑ "..departing May 20th, five ships were burnt due to a lack of crew. Another sank on its way to Jamaica". Don Blas de Lezo y Olavarrieta un Ejemplo Del Espíritu Militar Español Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine gives a total of 50 ships lost.
  73. ↑ Pares 1963, pp. 92–93. Offen 2009, pp. 3, 63–64.
  74. ↑ Conway 2006, p. 230.
  75. ↑ Navy Records Society (Great Britain) Publications of the Navy Records Society Vol. XXXIII, Naval Songs and Ballards,1907, pp. 181–184, a must read, absolutely hilarious in context, it also has specific details about the fleets that correspond to other sources such as "Thirty ships of the line...", "Don Blas with six ships...".
  76. ↑ Membrillo Becerra, Francisco Javier (2011). La Batalla de Cartagena de Indias (in Spanish). Caligrama. pp. 267–275. ISBN 978-8461538942.
  77. ↑ Victoria, Pablo (2005). El día que España derrotó a Inglaterra: de cómo Blas de Lezo, tuerto, manco y cojo, venció en Cartagena de Indias a la otra "Armada Invencible". Altera. p. 262. ISBN 8441435111.
  78. ↑ For a good account of the mood of London and Vernon's enmity to Walpole see: Ford 1907, pp. 141–145,"The debate in Parliament was one [of] the most exciting and memorable ever heard...the climax lay in Walpole's alleged misconduct in relation to the war, and that, in turn, practically meant his failure to give proper support to Admiral Vernon....But Walpole's victory was of the sort that presages ultimate defeat."; p. 147, "In January, 1742, Pulteney again marshalled his forces, and moved for the appointment of a committee to examine papers capable of affording evidence as to the conduct of the war with Spain." Walpole would resign the first week of February, 1742.
  79. ↑ Dull 2009, p. 47. Conway 2006, p. 14, " ... arguments between the naval and military commanders made effective cooperation impossible.". Animosity was such that Gov. Trelawny of Jamaica and Sir Chaloner Ogle drew swords on each other at a council. Fortescue 1899, p. 76.
  80. ↑ Dull 2009, p. 47. Conway 2006, p. 14, " ... arguments between the naval and military commanders made effective cooperation impossible.". Animosity was such that Gov. Trelawny of Jamaica and Sir Chaloner Ogle drew swords on each other at a council. Fortescue 1899, p. 76.
  81. ↑ ,"...so reduced was this force in two years by disaster and disease, that not a tenth part returned to England...'thus ended in shame, disappointment, and loss, the most important, most expensive, and best concerted expedition that Great Britain was ever engaged in'...". So too, Fortescue 1899, p. 76. "Of the regiments that had sailed from St. Helen's under Cathcart in all the pride and confidence of strength, nine in every ten had perished.".
  82. ↑ Baugh 2002, p. 141, "In early 1742, only 3,000 of 6,600 on Sir Chanon Ogle's large West India squadron were fit for duty.".
  83. ↑ ,"...so reduced was this force in two years by disaster and disease, that not a tenth part returned to England...'thus ended in shame, disappointment, and loss, the most important, most expensive, and best concerted expedition that Great Britain was ever engaged in'...". So too, Fortescue 1899, p. 76. "Of the regiments that had sailed from St. Helen's under Cathcart in all the pride and confidence of strength, nine in every ten had perished.".
  84. ↑ Rodger 2005, p. 238.
  85. ↑ Browning 1993, pp. 80–81
  86. ↑ "Edward Vernon". Westminster Abbey. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 20 May 2020
  87. ↑ "Plaque unveiled by Prince Charles in Colombia is removed". BBC News. 8 November 2014. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
Retrieved from "https://tn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias&oldid=39667"