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Ditso tsa Bokgoba

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Ditso tsa bokgoba di paraletse dingwao, mafatshe le ditumelo go tswa goo lowe go tsena gompieno. Ka mo go tshwanang, batswasetlhabelo ba jone ba tswa kwa merafeng le ditumelo tse di farologaneng. Maemo a makgoba a setho, itsholelo le tsa semolao a farologane mo mfaratlhatlheng a a garologaneng a bokgoba, mo dinakong tse di farologaneng le mafelo.[1] Bokgoba bo fitlhetswe mo merafeng ya batsumi-bakgobokanyi, e le bokgoba jo ba bo jang boswa,[2][3] mme seemo sa temothuo se se oketsegang go ya ka setho le itsholelo se oketsa bokgoba jwa dithoto.[4] Bokgoba bo ne jwa tlhomiwa ka nako e tlhabololo ya ntha e neng e simolola (jaaka Sumer kwa Mesopotamia[5], e e tswang kwa bogologolong jwa ngwaga ya 3500 pele ga ga Keresete.) Bokgoba bo a tlhagelela mo dikwalong tsa molao tsa kwa Babylon (pele ga ngwaga ya 1750), tse di bo supang e le tiragalo e e tlhomamisitsweng.[6] Bokgoba bo ne jwa anama mo lefatsheng le legologolo kwa Europe, Asia, botlhaba legare, le Aforika,[7][8][4] le kwa America.[9]

Bokgoba bo ne jwa nna le kwelo tlase kwa Europe ka dingwaga tsa legare mme jwa tswelela bo ntse bo diragadiwa mo mafelong mangwe. Barekeresete le ma Muslim ba ne ba tshwara ba bo ba dia ba bangwe makgoba ka dingwaga tsa dintwa kwa Mediterranean le kwa Europe.[10]Bokgoba jwa Islam bo ne bo akaretsa Asia kwa bophirima le legare,bokone le botlhaba jwa Aforika, India le Europe go tswa ka dingwaga tse di makgolo a supa go tsena a le masome mabedi. Molao wa Islam o ne o letlelela bokgoba jwa batho ba eseng ba tumelo ya Muslim, makgoba a ne a rekisiwa go tswa kwa mafelong a eseng a Muslim: go tswa bokone ka kgwebo ya makgoba ya Balkan le ya Crimean; go tswa botlhaba ka kgwebo ya bokgoba ya Bukhara; go tswa bophirima ka kgwebo ya makgoba ya Andalusian; le go tswa borwa ka kgwebo ya makgoba ya go kgabaganya Sahara, Kgwebo ya makgoba go kgabaganya lewatle le lehibidu, le kgwebo ya makgoba go kgabaganya lewatle la Indian.

Ka tshimologo ya dingwaga tse di makgolo a le lesome le borataro, barekisi ba kwa Europe, ba simolola ka ba ba tswang Portugal, ba ne ba simolola kgwebo ya makgoba ya Atlantic. Bagwebi ba le palo potlana ba ne ba tsenelela kwa teng, ba leka go tila malwetsi a bongola le borukutlhi. Ba ne ba reka ma Aforika ba magolegwa go tswa kwa magosing a bophirima jwa Aforika, ba ba isa kwa dikoloneng tsa Europe ka America. Bagwebi e ne e le metswedi ya dithoto tse di batlegang diakaretsa ditlhobolo, marumo, kopore, madi le matsela, go batla dithoto mo go ne ga baka dintwa le tse dingwe tse di neng di baka go dirwa makgba ga batho ba Aforika ka dipalo tse di kwa godimo.[11] Kwa India le lefatshe ka bophara, batho ba ne ba patelediwa go nna makgoba go re go nne le babereki. Bokgoba jwa kwa Atlantic bo ne jwa fokodiwa morago ga dipuso tsa Europe le America di fetisa molao o o iletsang go nna le seabe ga mafatshe a bone mo bokgobeng. Maiteko a go netefatsa kiletso ya bokgoba a ne a akaretsa lekalana la sesole la Aforika bophirima le la America la go disa kgwebo ya makgoba ya Aforika, go fedisiwa ga bokgoba kwa America, le go anama ga go laola Aforika ga mafatshe a Europe.

Mo dinakong tsa gompieno, thekiso ya batho ke bothata bo bo teng. Bokgoba mo dingwageng tsa gompieno bo a tswelela ebile bo dira dipoelo di ka nna dibilione di le lekgolo le masome a matlhano a di dolara ngwaga le ngwaga.[12] Batho kwa dikgaolong tsa dintwa tsa sesole ga ba a sireletsega, dikoloi tsa sešha di dira gore thekiso ya batho e nne motlhofo.[13] Ka ngwaga wa 2019, go ne go na le batho ba ka nna didkadike di le masome a mane mo lefatsheng ka kakaretso ba ba neng ba kopana le bokgoba jwa mohuta mongwe, masome a mane le botlhano mo lekgolong la bone ele bana.[12] Didikadike di le masome a mabedi le bone ba patelediwa go bereka, gantsi mo mohameng o o ikemetseng; didikadike di le lesome le botlhano ba mo manyalong a a pateleditsweng.[12] Mefuta ya bokgoba e akaretsa, bokgoba jwa mo lwapeng, bokgoba jo bo patelediwang mo go direng dilo, go tshwara ditlhapi, moepo, kago le bokgoba jwa tlhakanelo dikobo.[12]

Bokgoba jwa bogologolo le jwa sesha

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Bosupi jwa bokgoba bo sale bo nna teng pele ga dipego tse di kwadilweng; tiragalo e e nnile mo dingwaong tse di farologaneng[14][8] ebile bo kgona go bonwa dingwaga di ka nna dikete tse di lesome le motso tse di fetileng ka ntlha ya diemo tse di dirilweng ke go tokafadiwa ga temothuo ka tlhabololo ya ntlha[15][8][7]. Go ya godimo ga itsholelo le go ntsifala ga batho ene e le dingwe diemo tse di neng di dira gore bokgoba jwa batho ba bantsi bo kgonagale.[16][17]

Bokgoba bo diragetse mo ditlhabololong di akaretsa Egypt o mosha, China o mosha, bogosi jwa Akkadian, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Israel o mosha,[18][19][20]Greece o mosha, India o mosha, bogosi jwa Roma, magosi a Islam a ma Arabea, Nubia, Aksum, magosi a pele a borwa jwa Aforika, le ditlhabologo tsa Columbia.[21] Bokgoba jo bosha bo akaretsa go tlhakana ga bokgoba jwa sekoloto, go otlhaelwa borukutlhi, magolegwa a ntwa, go latlhiwa ga bana, le bana ba ba tsholetsweng mo bokgobeng.[22]

Mabitla a kwa Egypt a bogologoloa supa magolegwa a batswakwa a le mabedi, wa mo Syria mo molemeng le wa Nubia mo mojeng, gareng ga dingwaga tsa 332 pel ga ga Kereset le 395.










Mmepe wa Aforika wa ditsela, mafatshe, le magosi a kgwebo ya makgoba, ka dingwaga tse di makgolo a le lesome le boraro

Moitseanape wa ditso Fernand Braudel wa kwa France, fa a kwala ka ngwaga wa 1984, o ne a supa gore bokgoba bo sale bo nna teng mo Aforika ebile e le bontlha jwa botshelo jwa malatsi otlhe jwa mo gae mo dingwageng di le makgolo a le lesome le botlhano go tsna di le makgolo a le lesome le boferabobedi. "Bokgoba bo tsile ka ditsela tse di farologaneng mo ditšhabeng tse di farologaneng: go ne go na le makgoba a ntlo ya tshekelo, makgoba a a mo sesoleng, makgoba a mo gae le a mo matlong, makgoba a a berekang kwa masimong, kwa madirelong, jaaka ba ba isang dithoto le ba ba fa gare, le ba e leng bagwebi.[23] Ka dingwaga di le makgolo a le lesome le borataro, Europe e ne ya simolola go kgapela kwa ntle lefatshe la ma Arabea mo kgwebong, ba rekisetsa makgoba a a tswang kwa Aforika batho ba America.[24] Batho ba lotso lwa Dutch, ba ne ba reka makgoba go tswa kwa Asia go tsena mo koloneng ya bone kwa Kapa ya Good Hope (kwa jaanong e leng Cape Town) ka dingwaga di le makgolo a le lesome le bosupa.[25] Ka ngwaga wa 1807, lefatshe la Britain (le le neng le setse le na le lotshitshi lo lonnye, lo lo neng lo dirisediwa go fudutshiwa ga makgoba a pele, kwa Freetown, Sierra Leone) o ne a dira kgwebo ya makgoba mo bogosing jwa gagwe gore bo seka jwa nna ka fa molaong ka molao wa 1807 wa kgwebo ya makgoba, ba bereka go kganela atolosetsa kwa mafelong a mangwe,[26] jaaka kwa United States ka ngwaga wa 1808.[27]

Kwa Senegambia, ka dingwaga tsa 1300 go tsena ka 1900, bongwe mo borarong jwa morafe bo ne bo dirilwe makgoba. Kwa dikgaolong tsa Islam tsa kwa bophirima jwa Sudan, le kwa Ghana (go tswa ka 750 go tsena ka 1076), Mali (ka 1235 go tsena ka 1645), Segou (go tswa 1712 go tsena ka 1861) le Songhai (go tswa ka 1275 go tsena ka 1591, boraro jwa batho e ne e le makgoba.

Bokgoba kwa Ethiopia bo tsweletse go fitlhelela ka ngwaga wa 1942. Lekgotla le le kgatlhanong le bokgoba le ne la akanyetsa fa makgoba a ne a le didikadike tse pedi ka dingwaga tsa 1930 di simologa, mo bathong ba le didikadike diferabobedi go tsena ka di le lesome le borataro.[28] Bo ne jwa fedisiwa ka taolo ya ga Haile Selassie ka Phatwe a le masome a mabedi le borataro ka ngwaga wa 1942.[29]

Fa molao wa Britain o simololwa kwa Sokoto Caliphate le mafelo a a mabapi kwa bokone jwa Nigeria ka dingwaga di le makgolo a masome a mabedi, batho ba le didikadike tse pedi le tse pedi le botlhano ba ne ba dirilwe makgoba.[30] Bokgoba kwa bokone jwa Nigeria bo ne jwa ntshiwa mo molaong ka ngwaga wa 1936.[31]

Mmega dikgang wa kwa Congo, Elikia M'bokolo fa a kwala ka bogolo jwa bokgoba mo Aforika o ne a kwala are: " Lefatshe la Aforika le ne le tseetswe didirisiwa tsa lone ka ditsela tsotlhe. Mo Sahara, go feta ka lewatle le lehibidu, go tswa kwa matshitshing a Indian le Atlantic. Dingwaga di le makdolo a le masome tsa bokgoba go atswa mafatshe a Muslim. O tswelela are: "didikadike di le nne tsa makgoba ba ne ba isiwa kwa lewatleng le lehibigu, ba bangwe e bone ba le didikadike tse nne ka matshitshi a Swahili kwa nokeng ya Indian, gongwe ba ka nna didikadike di ferabongwe kwa tseleng ya borwa jwa Aforika, ba le didkadike di le lesome le motso go tsena ka masome a mabedi (go tswa mo mokwading) ba kgabaganya lewatle la Atlantic.[32]

Marekisetso a dingwaga di le makgolo a le lesome le boraro kwa Yemen







Borwa jwa Aforika

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Kolotsana ya kgwebo ya makgoba ya ma Arabea, e isa makgoba a Aforika go kgabaganya sekaka sa Sahara

Zanzibar ekile ya bo e le maemelo a dikepe a matona mo thekisong ya makgoba, ka nako ya kgwebo ya makgoba ya lewatle la Indian le ka fa tlase ga puso ya ma Arabea a Omani ka dingwaga di le makgolo a le lesome le boferabongwe, ka makgoba a le dikete di le masome a matlhano a feta ka toropo eo ngwaga le ngwaga.[33]

Pele ga dingwaga tse di makgolo a le lesome le borataro, bontsi jwa makgoba a a neng a tswa kwa Aforika a ne a tswa kwa botlhaba jwa Aforika go ya Arabian Peninsula. Zanzibar o ne a nna maemelo a dikepe a a eteletseng pele mo kgwebong e.[34] Bagwebi ba ma Arabea ba ne ba farologana le ba Europe ka ba ne ba tle ba dire ditlhaselo ka bo bone, nako tse dingwe ba tsenelela kgakala mo Aforika. Ba ne ba farologana gape ka gore marekisets a bone a ne a itlhophela makgoba a basadi go na le a banna.[35]

Go oketsega ga baba ba kwa Europe mo lotshitshing lo lo kwa botlhaba go ne ga dira gore bagwebi ba ma Arabea ba itebaganye le ditsela tsa di caravan go kgabaganya sekaka sa Sahara le Sahel go ya bokone jwa Aforika. Motlhatlhami wa kwa Germany Gustav Naxchtigal o ne a bega fa a bone dikolotsana tsa di caravan tsa makgoba di tswa kwa Kukawa kwa Bornu di ya kwa Tripoli le Egypt ka ngwaga wa 1870. Kgwebo ya makgoba e ne e emetse motswedi wa thekiso wa kgaolo ya Bornu ka dingwaga tsa 1898. Dikgaolo tse di kwa botlhaba jwa Central African Republic ga di ise ke di tlhole di siamelwa morago ga ditlamorago tsa ditlhaselo tsa dingwaga tsa makgolo a le lesome le boferabongwe go tswa Sudan, mme ebile ba santse ba na le palo e potlana ya batho ya motho a le mongwe mo bophareng jwa khilomithara.[36] Ka dingwaga tsa 1870, maiteko a mafatshe a Europe kgatlhanong le kgwebo ya makgoba a ne a baka seemo se se sa iketlang sa itsholelo kwa bokone jwa Sudan, se oketsa koketsego ya masole a ntwa ya Mahdist. Phenyo ya Madhi e ne ya baka lefatshe la Islam, le le neng la simolodisa bokgoba gape.[37][38]

Seabe sa Europe mo kgwebong ya makgoba ya kwa botlhaba jwa Aforika se simolotse fa lefatse la Portugal le simolola Estado da India ka dingwaga tsa makgolo a le lesome le borataro di simolola. Go tswa ka nako eo go fitlhelela ka dingwaga tsa 1830, batho ba ka nna makgolo mabedi ba ba neng ba dirilwe makgoba ba ne ba ntshiwa kwa Mozambique wa ma Potokisi ngwaga le ngwaga mme dipalo tse di tshwanang di akanyeditswe tsa batho ba e neng e le makgoba ba tswa kwa Asia go ya Philippines ka kopano ya Iberia.[39][40]

Go kgabaganya ga batho ba Atlantic go ya America, mo go neng ga itshokelwa ke makgoba ba beilwe ka ditselana mo mabeelong a dikepe, e ne e le yone ntlha e le nngwe ya kgwebo ya boraro e e itsegeng, e dirwa ke ma Potokisi, ma America, ma Dutch le ba Danish-Nowergian,[41] ba kwa France, Britain le ba bangwe. Dikepe tse di neng di gorosa makgoba kwa maemelong a Carribean di ne di tsaya sukiri, matsela, kofi di ya kwa Liverpool, Nantes, Lisbon kgotsa Amsterdam. Dikepe tse di neng di tswa kwa maemelong a Europe go ya bophirma jwa Aforika di ne di tsaya matsela, mangwe a tswa India, dintshwana tsa kopore, dijana le dipitsa, tsa tshipi tse di nang le tlhwatlhwa go gaisa gouta, dihutshe, marumo, le ditlhoblo le bojalwa. Diboko tsa bongola di ne di emisitswe kwa metsing a a tsididi a Atlantic, mme gongwe le gongwe kwa go neng go folosiwa, dipoelo di ne di diriwa.

Kgwebo ya makgoba ya Atlantic e ne ya ya kwa gdimo ka dingwaga di e makgolo a le lesome le boferabobedi di ya fifing, kwa palo e ntsi ya batho ba neng ba tshwarwa ba dirwa makgoba mo ditirong tsa go tlhasela go tsena ka bophirima jwa Aforika. Ditlhaselo tse di ne di dirwa ke dikgaolo tsa Aforika di tshwana le: Bono, Bogosi jwa Oyo (Yoruba), Bogosi jwa Kong, Bogosi jwa Benin, Imamate of Futa Jallon, Imamate of Futa Toro, Bogosi jwa Koya, bogosi jwa Khasso, Bogosi jwa Kaabu, bokopano jwa Fante, bokopano jwa batho ba Ashanti, bokopano jwa Aro le bogosi jwa Dahomey.[42][43] Batho ba Europe go ne go sa tlwaelesega gore ba tsene kwa teng ga Aforika, ka ntlha ya go tshaba malwetsi le go nna dingalo ga batho ba Aforika. Makgba a ne a tsisiwa kwa maemelong a dikepe kwa ba neng ba rekiwa ka dithoto. Batho ba ba neng ba tshwarwa ba ne ba isiwa ke bagwebi ba Europe kwa dikoloneng tse disha tsa lefatshe le lesha. Go akanyediwa gore mo dingwageng tse di makgolo, didikadike di le lesome le bobedi go stena ka masome a mabedi a makgoba a ne a tswa kwa Aforika ka bagwebi ba kwa Europe, ba lesome le botlhano mo lekgolong ba bone ba tlhokafetseng mo mosepeleng o o makgwakgwa. Bontsi bo ne bo isiwa kwa America, mme bangwe ba ne ba ya gape kwa Europe le borwa jwa Aforika.

Bagwebi ba makgoba ba ma Arabea le makgoba a bone mo nokeng ya Ruvuma (kwa e leng Tanzania le Mozambique gompieno) setshwantsho ka David Livingstone

Fa a bua ka kgwebo ya makgoba kwa botlhaba jwa Aforika mo dikwalong tsa gagwe, David Livingstone o ne are:

Go tlhofofatsa bosula jwa bone, ga go kgonagale.[44]

Fa a tsamaya mo mawatleng a magolo a Aforika ka ngwaga wa 1866, David Livingstone o ne a tlhalosa tsela ya makgoba jaana:

Ka kgwedi ya Seetebosigo e le lesome le boferabongwe ngwaga wa 1866 - re ne ra feta mosadi a bofeletswe ka molala mo setlhareng ebile a tlhokafetse, batho ba lefatshe leo ba ne ba tlhalosa gore o ne a retelelwa ke go tsamaya le makgoba a mangwe, mme mong wa gagwe o ne a tsaya thwetso ya gore ga a tshwanela go nna thoto ya ga ope fa a fola. Ka Seetebosigo a le masome a mabedi le borataro - re fitile mosadi wa lekgoba a thuntshitswe kgotsa a tlhabiwe a le fafatshe mo tseleng: setlhopha sa banna se ne se eme dikgato di ka nna lekgolo mo tseleng e nngwe, se sengwe mo go e nngwe, ba lebeletse; ba ne ba re mo Arabea o o fetileng mo mosong o dirie jalo ka tenego, ka latlhegelwa ke tlhwatlhwa e a neng a mo e ntsheditse, ka o ne a sa tlhole a kgona go tsamaya. Ka Seetebosigo a le masome a mabedi le bosupa - gompieno, re kopane le monna a tlhokafetse ka ntlha ya tlala, ka o ne a le mosesane thata. Mongwe wa banna ba rona o ne a tsamaya mme a bona makgoba a le mantsi ba tshotse dithupa, ba latlhilwe ke beng ba bone ka ba ne ba batla dijo; ba ne ba le bokoa thata go ka bua kgotsa go bolela gore ba tswa kae; bangwe ba ne ba le ba botlana thata.[45]

Bolwetsi bo bo makatsang thata bo ke boneng mo lefatsheng le go lebega e le go phatloga pelo, bo tlhasela banna ba ba gololesegileng ba ba tshwerweng ba dirwa makgoba...ba le masome a mabedi le bongwe ba ne ba sa golegiwa. Le fa go ntse jalo botlhe ba ne ba taboga ka nako e le nngwe; ba le borobabobedi ba sa ntse ba golegilwe ka dikeetane, ba ne ba tlhokafaa mo malatsing a le mararo morago ga go kgabaganya. Ba ne ba tlhalosa botlhoko jwa bone bo le mo pelong, ba baya seatla mo lefelong leo, le ntswa bontsi bo akanya gore pelo e kwa godimo ga lerapo la lebele.[46]

Seabe sa Aforika mo kgwebong ya makgoba

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Gezo, kgosi wa Dahomey

Mafatshe a Aforika a ne a na le seabe se segolo mo kgwebong ya makgoba, ebile bokgoba bo ne bo tlwaelesegile mo mafatsheng a go kgabaganya Aforika, le pele ga ma Arabea, Berber le ma Europe ba tsaya karolo. Go ne go na le mefuta e le meraro: ba ba neng ba dirilwe makgoba ka go gapiwa, mo boemong jwa dikoloto tse di sa duelwang, kgotsa ba batsadi ba bone ba neng ba ba neetse dikgosi tsa motse. Magosi a ne a neela batho ba Arab, Berber le Ottoman kgotsa Europe makgoba gore ba ba neele bojalwa, dinatetsha dijo, matsela kgotsa dithoto tse dingwe.[47] Go rekisa makgoba kgotsa magolegwa go ne go tlwaelesegile mo ma Aforikeng, Turk, Berber le ma Arabea a nako eo. Le fa go ntse jalo, fa kgwebo ya bokgoba ya kwa Atlantic e oketsega, mafaratlhatlha a mo gae a a neng a dira botlhanka le one a ne a oketsega. Kgwebo ya makgoba ya Europe, e ne e le yone phetogo e e botlhokwa mo sethong, itsholello, ngwao, tumelo le polotiki ya go gweba ka makgoba. Go ne ga nyenyafatsa itsholelo le go itshetlela ga sepolotiki ka baebereki ba tlhwatlhwa ba mo metseng ba ne ba isiwa go tlola mawatle fa ditlhaselo le dintwa tsa mogae di ne di tlwaelesega. Melato e pele e neng e otlhaiwa ka ditsela tse dingwe, e ne jaanong e otlhaiwa ka bokgoba.[48] Bokgoba bo ne bo ntse bo le teng kwa bogosing jwa Kongo pele ga go goroga ga ma Potokisi. Ka bo ne bo tlwaelesegile mo bogosing jwa gagwe, Afonso wa ntlha wa Kongo o ne a dumela go kgwebo ya makgoba e tshwanetse go tsamaisiwa ka molao wa Kongso. Fa a ne a belaela ma Potokisi a amagela makgoba go se ka fa molaong go ba rekisia, o ne a kwalela kgosi wa Portugal Kgosi Joao wa boraro ka ngwaga wa 1526 lokwalo lo lo neng lo mo gwetlha go emisa seo.[49]

Dikgosi tsa kwa Dahomey di ne di rekisa magolegwa a bone a ntwa mo bokgobeng jwa kwa Atlantic, ba ba ka bong ba ne ba bolawa mo moketeng o o neng o bidiwa Annual Customs.

Ma Aforika mo dikepeng

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Go falola loeto, e ne e le yone kgwetlho e tona. Go nna gaufi thata go ne go raya gore mongwe le mongwe o ne a tsenwa ke bolwetsi bo bo neng bo anama, go akaretsa ba ba berekang mo sekepeng. Loso lo ne lo tlwaelesegile mo dikepe di neng di bidiwa mabitla a a kokobetseng.[50] Se se neng se gakgamatsa ma Aforika thata ke ka fa loso lo neng lo tshwarwa ka teng mo dikepeng. Smallwood o supa gore ngwao ya loso ya Aforika e masisi ebile ke tiro ya morafe. Mo dikepeng, mebele e ne e latlhelwa mo lewatleng. Ka lewatle le ne le emeset mewa e e maswe, mebele e e mo lewatleng e ne e emela sebodu, sekepe se emela mofuta wa dihele. Ma Aforika a a neng a falola mosepele a ne tla bo a falotse malwetsi a a tseneletseng le tlala, ga mmogo le go tshwenyega thata mo maikutlong ka go nna mo lewatleng le bulegile le loso lwa ditsala tsa bone.[50]

Bokone jwa Aforika

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Sesupo sa sekepe sa makgoba se se neng se dirisiwa go isa makgoba kwa Europe le America

Kwa Algiers ka nako ya bogosi jwa Regency of Algiers kwa bokone jwa Aforika ka dingwaga di lemakgolo a le lesome le boferabongwe, bakeresete le batho ba Europe ba le sedikadike le botlhano ba ne ba tshwarwa ba ba ba patelediwa go nna makgoba.[51] Se se ne sa dira gore go thuntshiwe Algiers ka dibomo ka ngwaga wa 1816 ke ba Britain le ma Dutch,ba pateletsa batho ba Algiers go golola makgoba.[52]

Mo dinakong tsa sešha

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Makgoba a BaKeresete kwa Algiers, 1706

Go rekisiwa ga bana go begilwe gantsi mo Nigeria o mošha le Benin. Mo dikgaolong tsa Ghana, lolwapa lo ne lo ka otlhaelwa olato ka go neela ngwana wa mosetsana o a ising a tlhakanele dikobo go nna lekgoba la tlhakanelo dikobo mo lolwapeng lo ba le tloletseng molato. Fa go ntse jaana, mosadi o ga a neelwe maemo a go nna mosadi. Mo dikgaolong tsa Ghana, Togo le Benin, bokgoba jwa ntlo ya kobamelo bo tsweletse, le ntswa bo se ka fa molaong kwa Ghana fa e sale ka ngwaga wa 1998. Mo mokgweng o wa botlhanka, o o bidiwang trokosi kwa Ghana kgotsa voodoosi kwa Togo le Benin, makgarejwana a neelwa badimo ba ngwao go nna makgoba, ba dirisiwe mo tlhakanelong dikobo ke baruti ga mmogo le go ba berekela.

Tsebe mo pampiring ya dikgang ya Middle East Quarterly ya ngwaga wa 1999 e ne ya bega gore bokgoba bo fitlhelwa thata kwa Sudan.[53] Dipalo kakanyetso tsa batho ba ba tshwerweng ka ntwa ya bobedi ya kwa Sudan di tswa kwa dikete di le lesome le bone go tsena ka dikete di le makgolo a mabedi.[54]

Ka nako ya ntwa ya kwa Sudan ya bobedi, batho ba ne ba tsenngwa mo bokgobeng go tswa ka dikete di le lesome le bone go tsena ka dikete di le makgolo a mabedi.[55] Go tshwarwa ga basadi le bana ba morafe wa Dinka go ne go tlwaelesegile. Kwa Mauritania go belaelwa banna, basadi le bana ba ka nna dikete tse di makgolo marataro, kgotsa masome a mabedi bo lekgolong ele makgoba gompieno, bontsi jwa bone ba dirisiwa ditiro tse di bokete.[56] Bokgoba kwa Mauritania bo ne jwa dirwa molato ka Phatwe ngwaga wa 2007.[57]

Kwa ntwa ya Darfur e e simologileng ka ngwaga wa 2003, batho ba le bantsi ba ne ba tsewa ka dikgoka ke Janjaweed ba bo ba rekisiwa mo bokgobeng go dira ditiro tsa temothuo, batlhanka ba mo lwapeng le makgoba a tlhakanelo dikobo.[58][59][60]

Kwa Niger, bokgoba bo teng. Patlisiso ya kwa Nigeria e upulotse gore batho ba ka nna dikete tse di makgolo a ferabobedi ke makgoba, boferabobedi mo lekgolong la palo ya batho ba koo.[61][62][63] Niger e ne ya diragatsa molao o o kgatlhanong le bokgoba ka ngwaga wa 2003. [64][65]

Bokgoba jwa tlhakanelo dikobo le go patelediwa go bereka go tlwaelesegile kwa Democratic Republic of Congo.[66][67][68]

Batho ba merafe ya batho ba ba khutshwane kwa Republic of Congo le Democratic Republic of the Congo ba nna makgoba a Bantu go tswa fela ba belegwa.[69][70]

Bosupi jwa gore bokgoba kwa dipolasing tsa cacao kwa bophirima jwa Aforika bo ne bo le teng, bo upolotswe kwa ngwaga wa 1990.[71]

Go ya ka lephata la tsa mafatshe a sele la puso ya United States, bana ba feta dikete di le lekgolo le boferabongwe ba ne ba bereka ele makgoba kwa dipolasing tsa cacao kwa Ivory Coast, e le pereko ya bana e e matlhotlhapelo ka ngwaga wa 2002.[72]

Ka bosigo jwa Moranang a le lesome le bone go tsena lesome le botlhano, setlhopha sa ditsuulodi se ne sa tlhasela sekolo sa puso sa basetsana kwa Chibok, Nigeria. Ba ne ba tsenelela mo sekolong, ba itshupa fa ele badisa,[73] ba bolelela basetsana go tsamaya le bone.[74] Palo e ntsi ya baithuti e ne ya tsewa ka diteraka, go ya kwa dikgweng tsa Konduga le Sambisa kwa Boko Haram e neng e itsewe e na le dikampa teng.[75] Matlo kwa Chibok a ne a fisiwa ka nako ya tiragalo e. Go ya ka mapodisi, bana ba ka nna makgolo a mabedi, masome a supa le borataro ba ne ba tsewa ka tlhaselo e, ba le masome a matlhano le boraro ba iphalotsa ka Motsheganong a le malatsi a mabedi. Dipego tse dingwe si supa fa basetsana ba le makgolo a mararo, masome a mabedi le boferabongwe ba ne ba tsewa ka dikgoka, ba le masome a matlhano le boraro ba iphaloditse fa ba le makgolo a mabedi masome a supa le borataro ba santse ba sa bonwe. Baithuti ba ne ba patelediwa go fetogela kwa tumelong ya Islam le go nyala maloko a Boko haram, ka tlhwatlhwa ya dikete tse pedi tsa madi a Nigeria kgotsa lesome le bobedi, le botlhano jwa di dolara tsa America. Botsi jwa baithuti ba ne ba isiwa kwa maftsheng a a mabapi a Chad le Cameroon, go supiwa fa ba bonwe ba kgabaganya molelwane, le kwa sekgweng sa Sambisa kwa e leng botshabelo jwa Boko Haram.[76]

Kgwebo ya makgoba kwa Lybia

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]

Ka nako ya ntwa ya bobedi kwa Lybia, batho ba koo ba ne ba simolola go tshwara[77] ma Aforika a a neng a kgabaganya a leka go ya kwa Europe ba ba rekisa mo kgwebong ya makgoba. Makgoba gantsi ba malwapa ba bolelelwa go ba golola ka tlhwatlhwa, fa go santse go emetswe tuelo ba a sotliwa, ba patelediwe go bereka, nako tse dingwe ba berekisiwa go fitlhelela ba tlhokafala, gongwe ba felele ba bolawa kgotsa ba tlogelwa ba bolawa ke tlala fa tuelo e sa dirwa morago ga nako e e beilweng. Basadi ba tseelwa dikobo ka dikgoka ba dirisiwe e le makgoba a tlhakanelo dikobo ba bo ba rekisediwe mafelo a diaka.[78][79][80]

Bontsi jwa bana ba batswakwa le bone ba a sotliwa ba bo ba dirisiwe dikgoka mo tlhakanelong dikobo kwa Lybia.[81][82]

  1. ↑ Klein, Herbert S.; III, Ben Vinson (2007). African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (2nd ed.). New York [etc.]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195189421.
  2. ↑ Hunt, Peter (2015). "Slavery". The Cambridge World History: Volume 4: A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE–900 CE. 4: 76–100. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139059251.006. ISBN 9781139059251. Somewhat more convincing are statistical surveys of large numbers of societies that show that slavery is rare among hunter-gatherers, is sometimes present in incipient agricultural societies, and then becomes common among societies with more advanced agriculture. Up to this point slavery seems to increase with increasing social and economic complexity.
  3. ↑ Smith, Eric Alden; Hill, Kim; Marlowe, Frank; Nolin, David; Wiessner, Polly; Gurven, Michael; Bowles, Samuel; Mulder, Monique Borgerhoff; Hertz, Tom; Bell, Adrian (February 2010). "Wealth Transmission and Inequality Among Hunter-Gatherers". Current Anthropology. 51 (1): 19–34. doi:10.1086/648530. ISSN 0011-3204. PMC 2999363. PMID 21151711. Summary characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (SCSS). [...] Social stratification [: ...] Hereditary slavery 24% [...].
  4. 1 2 Hunt, Peter (2015). "Slavery". The Cambridge World History: Volume 4: A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE–900 CE. 4: 76–100. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139059251.006. ISBN 9781139059251. Slavery was a widespread institution in the ancient world (1200 BCE – 900 CE). Slaves could be found in simpler societies, but more important and better known was the existence of slavery in most advanced states. Indeed, it is hard to find any ancient civilizations in which some slavery did not exist. Slave use was sometimes extensive.
  5. ↑ Tetlow, Elisabeth Meier (2004). "Sumer". Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: Volume 1: The Ancient Near East. Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society. Vol. 1. New York: A&C Black. p. 7. ISBN 9780826416285. Retrieved 23 June 2025. In Sumer, as in most ancient societies, the institution of slavery existed as an integral part of the social and economic structure. Sumer was not, however, a slavery based economy.
  6. ↑ "Mesopotamia: The Code of Hammurabi". Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. e.g. Prologue, "the shepherd of the oppressed and of the slaves" Code of Laws No. 307, "If any one buy from the son or the slave of another man".
  7. 1 2 Stilwell, Sean (2013), "Slavery in African History", Slavery and Slaving in African History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 38, doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003, ISBN 978-1-139-03499-9, For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.
  8. 1 2 3 Perbi, Akosua Adoma (2004). A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana : from the 15th to the 19th century. Legon, Accra, Ghana: Sub-Saharan Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 9789988550325. It is to the Neolithic period of Ghana's history that one must look for the earliest evidence of slavery. Technological advancement and dependence on agriculture created a need for labor. The available evidence indicates that around the 1st century AD farming was done by individual households consisting of blood relations, pawns, and slaves. The earliest evidence of slavery is, therefore, likely to be found in the field of agriculture." and "The retention of captives taken in battle was a recognized practice among every people before the beginning of written history. The ancient records of the Assyrians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Persians, Indians and Chinese are all full of references to slaves and types of labor for which they were usually employed. With the Greeks and the Romans, the institution of slavery reached new heights.
  9. ↑ Gallay, Alan (2016). "Indian Slavery". The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198758815. Slavery existed among the indigenous peoples of the Americas before the European arrival. Its character varied from place to place. In societies that practiced human sacrifice, slaves were captured from enemies for ritualistic purposes. This occurred, for instance, among the Aztecs in Mexico and the Indians of the Pacific Northwest. More commonly, native peoples captured enemies to procure slave laborers for agricultural production and public works projects, particularly in Central and South America. Captivity, however, was not the only rationale for enslavement.
  10. ↑ Salzmann, Ariel (2013). "Migrants in Chains: On the Enslavement of Muslims in Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe". Religions. 4 (3): 391–411. doi:10.3390/rel4030391. Between the Renaissance and the French Revolution, hundreds of thousands of Muslim men and women from the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean were forcibly transported to Western Europe.
  11. ↑ Thomas, Hugh (2006). The slave trade : the history of the Atlantic slave trade, 1440-1870 (New ed.). London: Phoenix. ISBN 978-0753820568.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Hodal, Kate (31 May 2016). "One in 200 people is a slave. Why?". The Guardian.
  13. ↑ "10 countries with the highest prevalence of modern slavery". Global Slavery Index. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  14. ↑ "Historical survey: Slave-owning societies". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 23 February 2007.
  15. ↑ "Slavery". Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 April 2024.
  16. ↑ Compare: Ericson, David F. (2000). "Dew, Fitzhugh, and Proslavery Liberalism".The Debate Over Slavery: Antislavery and Proslavery Liberalism in Antebellum America.New York: New York University Press. p. 109. ISBN 9780814722121. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  17. ↑ Compare: : Slavery.Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 April 2024
  18. ↑ John Byron, Slavery Metaphors in Early Judaism and Pauline Christianity: A Traditio-historical and Exegetical Examination, Mohr Siebeck, 2003, ISBN 3161480791, p. 40
  19. ↑ Roland De Vaux, John McHugh, Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1997, ISBN 080284278X, p. 80
  20. ↑ J.M. Roberts, The New Penguin History of the World, pp. 176–77, 223
  21. ↑ "Historical survey > Slave-owning societies". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  22. ↑ "Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves," by W.V. Harris: The Journal of Roman Studies, 1999.
  23. ↑ Braudel, Fernand (26 September 1984). Civilization and Capitalism, 15th-18th Century: The perspective of the world. Vol. 3. Harper & Row. p. 435. ISBN 978-0060153175.
  24. ↑ "NPS Ethnography: African American Heritage & Ethnography". www.nps.gov. Archived from the original on 23 May 2010. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  25. ↑ "The Early Cape Slave Trade | South African History Online". www.sahistory.org.za. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  26. ↑ Grindal, Peter (2016). Opposing the Slavers. The Royal Navy's Campaign against the Atlantic Slave Trade (Kindle ed.). London: I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd. ISBN 978-0-85773-938-4.
  27. ↑ "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875 Statutes at Large, 9th Congress, 2nd Session", The Library of Congress, retrieved 23 June 2025.
  28. ↑ "Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  29. ↑ Goitom, Hanibal (14 February 2012). "Abolition of Slavery in Ethiopia". On Custodia Legis: Law Librarians of Congress. Library of Congress. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  30. ↑ Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review), Project MUSE – Journal of World History
  31. ↑ The end of slavery, BBC World Service | The Story of Africa
  32. ↑ "The impact of the slave trade on Africa". Mondediplo.com. 22 March 1998. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  33. ↑ "Swahili Coast". .nationalgeographic.com. 17 October 2002. Archived from the original on 6 December 2007. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  34. ↑ Vernet, Thomas (2009). Slave trade and slavery on the Swahili Coast (1500-1700). archieves.ouvertes.fr. pp. 37–76.
  35. ↑ "Traditional Gender Roles and Slavery | Colonialism, Slavery, and Race". Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  36. ↑ "Central African Republic: Early history". Britannica.com. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  37. ↑ "Civil War in the Sudan: Resources or Religion?". American.edu. Retrieved 23 June 2025
  38. ↑ Moore-Harell, Alice (1998). "Slave Trade in the Sudan in the Nineteenth Century and Its Suppression in the Years 1877–80". Middle Eastern Studies. 34 (2): 113–28 doi:10.1080/00263209808701225. JSTOR 4283940.
  39. ↑ Allen, R. B. (2017). "Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean" (PDF). Tempo. 23 (2): 294–313. doi:10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  40. ↑ Copied content from Indian Ocean; see that page's history for attribution.
  41. ↑ "Nordmennene har aldri vært alene i verden (in Norwegian)". .norgeshistorie.no (published by the University of Oslo). 17 October 2002. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  42. ↑ Peterson, Derek R.; Gavua, Kodzo; Rassool, Ciraj (2 March 2015). The Politics of Heritage in Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-09485-7.
  43. ↑ "The Transatlantic Slave Trade". Metmuseum.org. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  44. ↑ The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained from His Faithful Servants, Chuma and Susi. Cambridge University Press. 1875. p. 352. Retrieved 23 jUNE 2025. To overdraw its evils is a simple impossibility.
  45. ↑ The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained From His Faithful Servants, Chuma and Susi. Cambridge University Press. 15 September 2011. pp. 56, 62. ISBN 9781108032612. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  46. ↑ The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained From His Faithful Servants, Chuma and Susi. Cambridge University Press. 1875. p. 352. Retrieved 23 June 2025. the strangest disease i have sen in this country is brokenheartedness.
  47. ↑ Tunde Obadina. "Slave trade: a root of contemporary African Crisis". Africa Business Information Services. Archived from the original on 2 May 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  48. ↑ Graeber, David. 2012. Debt: The First 5,000 Years. Brooklyn, NY: Melville House.
  49. ↑ "African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 January 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  50. 1 2 Smallwood, Stephanie E. Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora. 1st Harvard University Press pbk. ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008.
  51. ↑ Milton, Giles (8 June 2005). White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow and Islam's One Million White Slaves (1st American ed.). Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0374289355.
  52. ↑ Baepler, B. "White Slaves, African Masters 1st Edition." White Slaves, African Masters 1st Edition by Baepler. University of Chicago Press, n.d. Web. 7 January 2013. p. 5
  53. ↑ "My Career Redeeming Slaves". MEQ. December 1999. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  54. ↑ "Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan". U.S. Department of State. 22 May 2002. Retrieved 23 June 2025
  55. ↑ "Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan". US Department of State. 22 May 2002. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  56. ↑ "The Abolition season on BBC World Service". BBC. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  57. ↑ "Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law". BBC News. 9 August 2007. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  58. ↑ Pflanz, Mike (16 December 2008). "Darfur civilians 'seized as slaves by Sudan military'". Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 – via www.telegraph.co.uk.
  59. ↑ "Darfur Abductions: Sexual Slavery and Forced Labour". Archived from the original on 15 January 2019. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  60. ↑ "'Thousands made slaves' in Darfur". 17 December 2008 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
  61. ↑ "The Shackles of Slavery in Niger". ABC News. 3 June 2005. Retrieved 23 June 2025
  62. ↑ Andersson, Hilary (11 February 2005). "Born to be a slave in Niger". BBC News. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  63. ↑ "Slavery Today". BBC News. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  64. ↑ "Niger Profile". BBC News. 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2025
  65. ↑ "Niger: Slavery – an unbroken chain," IRIN, March 2005 (accessed 23 June 2025)
  66. ↑ Kelly, Annie (19 January 2016). "Children as young as seven mining cobalt used in smartphones, says Amnesty". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.
  67. ↑ Kelly, Annie (23 July 2014). "Sexual slavery rife in Democratic Republic of the Congo, says MSF". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.
  68. ↑ "Congo, Democratic Republic of the". U.S. Department of State.
  69. ↑ Thomas, Katie (12 March 2007). "Congo's Pygmies live as slaves". The News & Observer. Archived from the original on 28 February 2009.
  70. ↑ As the World Intrudes, Pygmies Feel Endangered, New York Times
  71. ↑ 5 Minutes 10 Minutes. "West is master of slave trade guilt". The Australian. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  72. ↑ U.S. Department of State Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2005 Human Rights Report on Côte d'Ivoire
  73. ↑ "88 Nigerian schoolgirls abducted by Islamic extremists still missing". The Guardian. Associated Press. 19 April 2014. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  74. ↑ Maclean, Ruth (17 April 2014) Nigerian schoolgirls still missing after military 'fabricated' rescue The Times, (may need a subscription to view online), Retrieved 23 June 2025
  75. ↑ Maclean, Ruth (17 April 2014) Nigerian schoolgirls still missing after military 'fabricated' rescue The Times, (may need a subscription to view online), Retrieved 23 June 2025
  76. ↑ Heaton, Laura (30 April 2014). "Nigeria: kidnapped schoolgirls 'sold as wives to Islamist fighters'". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
  77. ↑ "Muslims Are Taking Countless Africans As Slaves, Starving Them To Death, Selling Them And Taking The Women To Rape Them". 13 April 2017.
  78. ↑ "African migrants 'sold in slave markets'". BBC News. 11 April 2017.
  79. ↑ Graham-Harrison, Emma (10 April 2017). "Migrants from west Africa being 'sold in Libyan slave markets'". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.
  80. ↑ "African migrants sold as 'slaves' in Libya". 3 July 2020.
  81. ↑ Adams, Paul (28 February 2017). "Libya exposed as child migrant abuse hub". BBC News.
  82. ↑ "Immigrant Women, Children Raped, Starved in Libya's Hellholes: Unicef". 28 February 2017. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
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