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Ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika

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Ditumelo le mekgwa ya batho ba Aforika di farologane thata e bile di akaretsa ditumelo tsa merafe tse di farologaneng.[1] [2]Ka kakaretso, ditso tsotlhe tseno ga di ikaege ka dibuka tse di kwadilweng, mme di fetisiwa go tswa mo kokomaneng e nngwe go ya go e nngwe ka dipolelo, dipina, dikgang tsa bogologolo le meletlo ya setso.[3][4][5] Di akaretsa tumelo mo meoyeng le mo medimong e e kwa godimo le e e kwa tlase, tsotlhe dingwe di dumela gape mo Modimong yo Mogolo, mmogo le go tlotla badimo, tiriso ya boloi kgotsa maselamose, le kalafi ya setso ya Seaforika. Bontsi jwa ditumelo tseno bo ka tlhalosiwa e le ditumelo tsa semowa tse di dumelang gore tsotlhe mo tlholegong[6][7] di na le mowa, mme gape di na le dikarolo tsa go dumela mo medimong e le mentsi le tsotlhe mo lefatsheng tsotlhe di amana le bomodimo.[1][8] Karolo ya motho mo ditumelong tseno e tsewa e le go tshela ka kutlwano le tlholego mmogo le lefatshe la semowa.[1][9]

Go anama le go kopana le ditumelo tsa ga Aborahame

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]

Balatedi ba ditumelo tsa setso mo Afrika ba anamisitswe mo mafatsheng a le 43 mme go fopholediwa gore ba feta didikadike di le lekgolo.[10][11]

Boislamo le Bakeresiti, tse gantsi di tlositseng ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika, tsotlhe di fetolwa go dumalana le ditso le ditumelo tsa Maaforika. Batho ba le bantsi mo Aforika ba kopanya ditumelo tsa bone tsa setso le Baebele kgotsa Boislamo.[12][13][14] [15][16]Ditumelo tseno tse pedi tsa Baebele di anametse mo kontinenteng yotlhe ya Aforika, le fa bontsi jwa balatedi ba tsone bo fitlhelwa mo dikgaolong tse di farologaneng. Dikakanyo tsa Baebele, segolobogolo tsotlhe tse di amanang le go dumela mo Modimong a le mongwe fela, di ne tsa simolola go tsena mo ditumelong tsa setso tsa Aforika tse pele di neng di dumela mo medimong e le mentsi.[17] Ditumelo tsa setso tsa Bophirima jwa Aforika di leka go tlhaloganya boammaaruri jwa botshelo, mme go farologana le Baebele, ga di ikaege mo dikakanyong tse di siametseng fela. Go na le moo, di leka go tlhalosa tsotlhe tse motho a di itemogelang mo botshelong ka maatla a semowa a a tshegetsang kagiso le tsamaiso e e siameng mo setšhabeng, mme a ganetsana le maatla a a ka tlisang tlhakatlhakano le tshenyo.[18]

Balatedi ba ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika ba fitlhelwa gape mo mafatsheng a le mantsi mo lefatsheng. Mo dinakong tsa bosheng, ditumelo tse di jaaka tumelo ya Baebele ya Yoruba, tumelo ya Odinala (e leng tumelo ya setso ya Ba-Igbo), le Gaboism[19] di ntse di gola ka bonako. Ditumelo tsa Ba-Igbo le BaYoruba di tumile thata kwa Caribbean le mo dikarolong dingwe tsa Amerika Bogare le Amerika Borwa. Kwa United States of America, tumelo ya Voodoo e bonala thata mo dinageng tse di bapileng le Kgogometso ya Mexico (Gulf of Mexico).[20]

Dilo tsa motheo

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]
Motantshi wa setso wa Vodun yo o kgatlhang medimo le meya, kwa Ganvie, kwa Benin
Moletlo wa selegae kwa Benin o o nang le zangbeto

Ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika tse di raraaneng thata tse di ikaegileng ka tumelo ya gore tsotlhe mo tlholegong di na le mowa ke tsone motheo wa kgopolo ya ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika. Seno se akaretsa kobamelo ya medimo e e sireletsang batho kgotsa ditšhaba, kobamelo ya tlholego, go tlotla badimo le tumelo ya botshelo morago ga loso, e e tshwanang le ya ditumelo tse dingwe tsa setso mo lefatsheng. Le fa ditumelo dingwe di na le pono ya gore dilo tsotlhe di amana le bomodimo, di dumela mo Modimong yo Mogolo mmogo le medimo e mengwe le meoya, fa tse dingwe di latela tsamaiso ya go dumela mo medimong e le mentsi, meoyeng le dibopiweng tse dingwe tsa semowa.[6] Ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika gape di na le dikarolo tsa ditotem, bošamane le go tlotla dilo tse di boitshepo tse di tlogetsweng ke bagologolo.[21] Ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika, fela jaaka ditso tse dingwe tsa bogologolo mo lefatsheng, di ne di ikaegile ka dipolelo tsa molomo. Ditso tseno ga se melao ya bodumedi fela, mme ke boitshupo jwa setso jo bo fetisiwang ka dipolelo, mainane le dikgang tsa bogologolo go tswa mo kokomaneng e nngwe go ya go e nngwe. Setšhaba, lelapa la motho le tikologo di na le seabe se segolo mo botshelong jwa motho. Balatedi ba dumela mo kaelong le dithutong tsa meoya ya badimo ba bone. Mo ditumelong di le dintsi tsa setso tsa Aforika, go na le baeteledipele ba semowa le mefuta ya baperesiti ba ba botlhokwa mo go tsweletseng botshelo jwa semowa le jwa bodumedi jwa setšhaba. Gape go na le batho ba ba nang le bokgoni jwa semowa ba ba ikarabelang mo kalafing le mo go boneleng pele dilo kgotsa go naya kgakololo, e leng tiro e e tshwanang le ya bošamane. Dingaka tseno tsa setso di tshwanetse go bidiwa ke badimo kgotsa medimo gore di dire tiro ya tsone. Di tsena mo thutong e e gagametseng mme di ithuta bokgoni jo bontsi jo bo tlhokegang, go akaretsa tiriso ya ditlhare tsa tlholego mo kalafing le bokgoni jo bongwe jwa semowa, jaaka go bona sengwe se se fitlhilweng le fa di sa itse gore se fitlhilwe kae. Ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika di dumela gore badimo ba tswelela ba na le kamano ya semowa le ba losika lwa bone ba ba tshelang. Bontsi jwa meoya ya badimo bo tsewa e le molemo e bile bo na le bopelonomi. Ditiro tse di sa siamang tse di dirwang ke meoya ya badimo di ka baka malwetse a mannye e le tlhagiso ya gore batho ba fapogile tsela e e siameng. Matshwao a mangwe a tlhagiso a ka nna go runya ga malwetse, mme seno se dira gore batho ba lemoge gore ba kgopisitse medimo kgotsa badimo[22].

Ditumelo tsa setso tsa Seaforika di ikaegile thata ka go tlotla badimo, tumelo ya gore go na le lefatshe la meoya, dibopiwa tsa semowa le kgololesego ya motho ya go itlhophela (go farologana le kgopolo ya tumelo e e neng ya tlhagelela moragonyana). Batho ba ba tlhokafetseng (mmogo le diphologolo kgotsa dilo tsa botlhokwa) ba dumelwa gore ba santse ba le teng mo lefatsheng la meoya mme ba ka ama kgotsa ba dirisana le lefatshe la batho ba ba tshelang. Mekgwa ya go dumela mo medimong e le mentsi e ne e anametse thata mo bontsing jwa dikarolo tsa Aforika ya bogologolo le dikarolo tse dingwe tsa lefatshe pele Boislamo, Bokeresete le Sejuta di tsena. Nngwe ya dilo tse di neng di sa tlwaelega e ne e le bodumedi jwa go dumela mo Modimong a le mongwe jo bo neng jwa tlhamiwa ke Faro Akhenaten ka nako e khutshwane, yo o neng a pateletsa batho go rapela modimo wa gagwe Aten (bona Atenism).[23] Phetogo eno e e gakgamatsang mo bodumeding jwa setso jwa Egepeto e ne ya fetolwa gape ke morwawe yo mmotlana, Tutankbhamun. [24][25][26][27]Medimo e megolo, mmogo le medimo e mengwe e e nang le ditiro tse di kgethegileng, meoya ya badimo, meoya ya mafelo le dibopiwa tsa semowa, ke dikarolo tse di tlwaelegileng mo ditumelong tsa setso tsa Aforika, mme di bontsha setso se se raraaneng le se se tsweletseng pele sa Aforika ya bogologolo[27][28][29]. Dipatlisiso dingwe di bontsha gore dikgopolo dingwe tsa go dumela mo Modimong a le mongwe, jaaka tumelo mo Modimong yo Mogolo kgotsa maatleng a magolo (mmogo le medimo e mengwe e mentsi, dibopiwa tsa semowa le meoya e ka dinako dingwe e tsewang e le batsereganyi magareng ga batho le Mmopi), di ne di setse di le teng mo Aforika pele ga go tlhagoga ga ditumelo tsa Baebele. Le fa go ntse jalo, dikgopolo tseno tsa setso sa selegae di ne di farologane le tumelo ya Modimo a le mongwe e e fitlhelwang mo ditumelong tsa Baebele.[27][30][31][28]

Motantshi wa setso wa Koku

Kalafi ya setso ya Seaforika le yone e amana ka tlhamalalo le ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika. Go ya ka Clemmont E. Vontress, ditumelo tse di farologaneng tsa setso tsa Aforika di kopanngwa ke tumelo ya motheo ya gore tsotlhe mo tlholegong di na le mowa. Go ya ka ene, tumelo mo meoyeng le mo badimong ke yone karolo e e botlhokwa thata ya ditumelo tsa Aforika. Medimo e ka tswa e itlhagisitse ka boyone kgotsa e ka tswa e tlhageletse go tswa mo meoyeng kgotsa mo badimong ba batho ba neng ba simolola go ba obamela. Gape o tlhalosa gore bontsi jwa ditumelo tsa segompieno tsa setso tsa Aforika di tlhotlheleditswe thata ke ditumelo tse e seng tsa Aforika, segolobogolo Bokeresete le Boislamo, mme ka ntlha ya moo di ka farologana le mefuta ya tsone ya bogologolo.[7]

Ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika gantsi di dumela mo botshelong morago ga loso (lefatshe la meoya kgotsa mafelo a semowa, kwa meoya mmogo le medimo di nnang gone), mme tse dingwe gape di na le kgopolo ya go tsalwa gape, moo batho ba ba tlhokafetseng ba ka tsalwang gape mo losikeng lwa bone (losika lwa madi), fa ba eletsa jalo kgotsa ba sa ntse ba na le sengwe se ba tshwanetseng go se diragatsa.[32] Kgopolo ya Serer ya go tsalwa gape e gana mogopolo wa gore Modimo yo Mogolo le Mmopi, Roog, a ka tsalwa kgotsa a boe a tsalwe gape. Le fa go ntse jalo, go tsalwa gape ga Pangool kgotsa meoya go dumelwa thata mo semoweng sa Baserer.[33]

Go na le go tshwana gantsi mo gare ga ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika tse di fitlhelwang mo kgaolong e le nngwe. Sekao, mo Aforika Bogare, go na le ditso tsa bodumedi tse di tshwanang mo dinageng tsa Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia le Malawi[34]. Batho ba ba salang morago ditumelo tsa setso mo dinageng tseno gantsi ba tlotla le go obamela badimo ka go dira meetlo le meletlo, gape ba obamela lefatshe kgotsa modimo mongwe ka ditlhopha tsa kobamelo tsa kgaolo ("regional cults") kgotsa mafelo a a boitshepo ("shrine cults"), ka go latelana.[34]

Jacob Olupona, porofesa wa Mo-Nigeria le Mo-Amerika yo o ithutang ka ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika kwa Harvard University, o ne a sobokanya ditumelo tsotlhe tsa setso tsa Aforika e le ditso tsotlhe tsa bodumedi tse di raraaneng tse di ikaegileng mo tumelong ya gore tsotlhe mo tlholegong di na le mowa, le tsotlhe tse di neng di dirisiwa ke batho ba Aforika pele ga go tla ga Bokeresete le Boislamo mo Aforika. Go tlotla badimo go ntse go na le seabe se segolo mo ditsong tsa setso tsa Aforika, mme go ka tsewa e le mokokotlo wa tsela e Maaforika a lebang lefatshe ka yone. Badimo (mewa ya bagologolwane ba ba tlhokafetseng) ke karolo e e botlhokwa ya tsotlhe tse di leng teng. Ka kakaretso go dumelwa gore badimo ba nna mo lefatsheng la badimo (spirit world), le fa bangwe ba dumela gore badimo bangwe ba fitlha mo maatleng a a lekanang le a medimo.[35]

Pharologanyo fa gare ga medimo le badimo gantsi e a ganetsanwa kgotsa e farologana go ya ka ditso le ditumelo. Le fa go ntse jalo, ka kakaretso go dumelwa gore badimo ba tshela mo seemong se se kwa godimo go feta batho ba ba tshelang, e bile ba na le bokgoni jwa go naya ditlogolwana tsa bone ditshegofatso kgotsa malwetse. Badimo ba ka naya ditlogolwana tsa bone kgakololo, masego, lesego le tlotlo, mme gape ba ka dira tsotlhe dingwe, jaaka go batla gore mafelo a bone a a boitshepo a tlhokomelwe sentle le gore ba newe ditlhabelo kgotsa ditshupo tsa tlotlo ka mokgwa o o tshwanetseng. Tumelo mo badimong gape e bontsha gore semowa sa setso sa Aforika se akaretsa tsotlhe, ka gonne se dumela gore bagologolwane ba ba tlhokafetseng ba sa ntse ba na le seabe mo matshelong a ditlogolwana tsa bone tse di sa ntseng di tshela.

Olupona ga a dumalane le tlhaloso ya Bophirima le ya Boislamo ya bodumedi jwa modimo a le mongwe (monotheism), a re ga e kgone go tlhalosa sentle go raraana ga ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika e bile e di nolofatsa go feta kafa di leng ka gone. Le fa ditso dingwe di dumela mo Modimong yo Mogolo (mmogo le medimo e mengwe), tse dingwe ga di dire jalo. Ka jalo, bodumedi jwa modimo a le mongwe ga bo bontshe ditsela tsotlhe tse di farologaneng tse semowa sa setso sa Aforika se tlhalosang medimo, medingwana le mewa ka tsone. O sobokanya ka gore ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika ga se ditumelo fela, mme gape ke tsela ya go leba lefatshe, le mokgwa wa botshelo.[35]

Meletlo ya bodumedi

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]
Kgotlatshekelo ya bodumedi kwa borwa jwa Ghana

Ditlwaelo tsa bodumedi tsa Aforika Bophirima le Aforika Bogare gantsi di bonala mo meletlong ya setšhaba kgotsa mo mekgweng ya bonohe, moo maloko a setšhaba a amogelwang ke maatla a semowa (a a bidiwang ashe, nyama, kgotsa ka maina a mangwe go ya ka setso). Ka ntlha ya morethetho o o tswelelang wa meropa kgotsa wa dipina, batsayakarolo ba ka tsena mo seemong sa go akanya ka botebo kgotsa go tsenwa ke semowa. Mongwe wa meletlo eno ya bodumedi e e dirwang kwa Gabon le Cameroon ke Okuyi, e e dirisiwang ke merafe e le mmalwa ya Bantu. Mo seemong seno, go ikaegile ka kgaolo, morethetho wa meropa kgotsa wa diletswa tsa mmino o o letswang ke badiredi ba mmino ba ba tlotlegang (mme morethetho mongwe le mongwe o amana le modimo kgotsa modimo mongwe), o dira gore batsayakarolo ba tsenwe ke modimo kgotsa modimo, kgotsa ba bontshe maatla a semowa kgotsa seemo sengwe sa mogopolo ka go dira metsamao kgotsa metantsho ya meetlo e e kgethegileng, e e oketsang seemo sa bone sa go itemogela tsotlhe tsa semowa.[36]

Fa seemo seno se se tshwanang le go tsenwa ke semowa se bonwa le go tlhaloganngwa, balatedi ba bodumedi joo ba kgona go akanyisisa ka botebo ka ga tsela e semowa kgotsa mogopolo o o rileng o iponatsang ka yone. Seno se ba thusa go farologanya maikutlo a a tlisiwang ke seemo seo sa mogopolo le tsela e a iponatsang ka yone mo botshelong jwa letsatsi le letsatsi. Go farologanya seno le go akanyisisa ka ga tlholego le metswedi ya maatla kgotsa maikutlo ao go thusa batsayakarolo go a laola le go a amogela fa a tlhagelela mo botshelong jwa gale. Seno se ba thusa gape go laola le go fetola maatla ao gore a bonale ka boitshwaro, megopolo le puo tse di siameng le tse di amogelesegang mo setsong sa bone. Mo godimo ga moo, mokgwa ono o ka dira gore batho ba ba leng mo seemong seno ba bue mafoko a a ka tlhalosiwang ke mongwe yo o nang le kitso ya setso kgotsa senoge, mme tlhaloso eo e ka naya kaelo ka ga tsela e e tshwanetseng e setšhaba kgotsa motho ka bongwe a ka e tsayang go fitlhelela maikaelelo a sona kgotsa a gagwe.[37]

Meya

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]

  Setlhogo se segolo: Lenaneo la batho ba ditlhamane tsa Maafrika

Nkisi nkondi wa Bakongo . Ke setlhotshwana sa nkisi, dilo tse go dumelwa gore di agiwa ke meya, tse di tlwaelegileng go ralala Congo Basin .

Balatedi ba ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika ba rapela mewa e e farologaneng mmogo le badimo ba bone.[38] Seno se akaretsa gape mewa ya tlholego, mewa ya dilo tsa tlholego tse di jaaka metsi, molelo, phefo le lefatshe, le mewa ya diphologolo. Gantsi pharologanyo fa gare ga mewa e e nang le maatla le medimo ga e bonale sentle. Ditšhaba tsotlhe tse dintsi tsa Aforika di dumela mo medimong e megolo e le mmalwa le mo medimong e mennye le meweng e mentsi. Le fa go ntse jalo, go na le ditumelo dingwe tse di dumelang mo Modimong a le mongwe yo Mogolo, jaaka Chukwu, Nyame, Olodumare, Ngai le Roog. [39]Ditumelo dingwe gape di amogela tumelo ya modimo wa monna le modimo wa mosadi ba ba busang mmogo, jaaka Mawu-Lisa.[40]

Ditumelo tsa setso tsa Aforika gantsi di dumela mo botshelong morago ga loso, le mo lefatsheng le le lengwe kgotsa a le mantsi a semowa. Go obamela le go tlotla badimo ke mogopolo wa botlhokwa o o fitlhelwang mo e ka nnang mo ditumelong tsotlhe tsa Aforika. Ditumelo dingwe tsa setso tsa Aforika di fetotse kgotsa tsa amogela dikakanyo dingwe tse disha ka ntlha ya tlhotlheletso ya Boislamo kgotsa le ya Bohindu.[41][42]


Dimaseke tsa Bakongo go tswa kwa Kongo Bogare
Boto ya go bolelela pele ya Bayoruba ya mo tshimologong ya lekgolo la bo20 la dingwaga
Ngaka ya setso ya Aforika Borwa e dira boitseanape ka go buisa marapo
  1. 1 2 3 Encyclopedia of African Religion (Sage, 2009) Molefi Kete Asante
  2. ↑ Ndlovu, Tommy Matshakayile (1995). Imikhuba lamasiko AmaNdebele. Doris Ndlovu, Bekithemba S. Ncube. Gweru, Gasiya Zimbabwe: Mambo Press. ISBN 0-86922-624-X. OCLC 34114180.
  3. ↑ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2006). The Oxford handbook of global religions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513798-1. OCLC 64084086.
  4. ↑ Mbiti, John S. (1991). Introduction to African religion. Oxford [England]: Heinemann Educational Books. ISBN 0-435-94002-3. OCLC 24376978.
  5. ↑ Nweke, Kizito Chinedu (2022-12-25). "Responding to new Imageries in African indigenous Spiritualties". Religious: Jurnal Studi Agama-Agama dan Lintas Budaya. 6 (3): 271–282. doi:10.15575/rjsalb.v6i3.20246. ISSN 2528-7249. S2CID 255213985.
  6. 1 2 Kimmerle, Heinz (2006-04-11). "The world of spirits and the respect for nature: towards a new appreciation of animism". The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa. 2 (2): 15. doi:10.4102/td.v2i2.277. ISSN 2415-2005.
  7. 1 2 Vontress, Clemmont E. (2005), "Animism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa", Integrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy, SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 124–137, doi:10.4135/9781452231648, ISBN 978-0-7619-3047-1, retrieved 2019-10-31
  8. ↑ An African Story BBC Archived November 2, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
  9. ↑ What is religion? An African understanding Archived May 21, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.
  10. ↑ Britannica Book of the Year (2003), Encyclopædia Britannica (2003) ISBN 978-0-85229-956-2 p.306 According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 480,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. Ian S. Markham, A World Religions Reader (1996) Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers Tempolete:Webarchive is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total. These numbers are estimates, and remain a matter of conjecture (see Amadu Jacky Kaba). The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, (June 2005), discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedias, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed on figure. Notes the figure presented at the World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here Tempolete:Webarchive, as being an outlier. On rates of growth, Islam and Pentecostal Christianity are highest, see: The List: The World's Fastest-Growing Religions, Foreign Policy, May 2007.
  11. ↑ Lugira, Aloysius M., African Traditional Religions (New York: Chelsea House, 2009), p. 36 [in] Varghese, Roy Abraham, Christ Connection: How the World Religions Prepared the Way for the Phenomenon of Jesus, Paraclete Press (2011), p. 1935, ISBN 9781557258397 (Retrieved 24 March 2019)
  12. ↑ Mbiti, John S (1992). Introduction to African religion. East African Publishers. ISBN 978-0-435-94002-7.When Africans are converted to other religions, they often mix their traditional religion with the one to which they are converted. In this way they are not losing something valuable, but are gaining something from both religious customs
  13. ↑ Riggs, Thomas (2006). Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices: Religions and denominations. Thomson Gale. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7876-6612-5.Although a large proportion of Africans have converted to Islam an Christianity, these two world religions have been assimilated into African culture, and many African Christians and Muslims maintain traditional spiritual beliefs
  14. ↑ Gottlieb, Roger S (2006-11-09). The Oxford handbook of religion and ecology. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-517872-2.Even in the adopted religions of Islam and Christianity, which on the surface appear to have converted millions of Africans from their traditional religions, many aspect of traditional religions are still manifest
  15. ↑ "US study sheds light on Africa's unique religious mix". AFP. Archived from the original on April 25, 2010.t doesn't seem to be an either-or for many people. They can describe themselves primarily as Muslim or Christian and continue to practice many of the traditions that are characteristic of African traditional religion," Luis Lugo, executive director of the Pew Forum, told AFP.
  16. ↑ Quainoo, Samuel Ebow (2000-01-01). In Transitions and consolidation of democracy in Africa. Global Academic. ISBN 978-1-58684-040-2.Even though the two religions are monotheistic, most African Christians and Muslims convert to them and still retain some aspects of their traditional religions
  17. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Book of the Year 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica, (2003) ISBN 9780852299562 p.306. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 376,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. Ian S. Markham,(A World Religions Reader. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.) is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total. These numbers are estimates, and remain a matter of conjecture. See Amadu Jacky Kaba. The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, June 2005. Discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedium, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed figure. Notes the figure presented at the World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here, as being an outlier. The World Book Encyclopedia has estimated that in 2002 Christians formed 40% of the continent's population, with Muslims forming 45%. It was also estimated in 2002 that Christians form 45% of Africa's population, with Muslims forming 40.6%.
  18. ↑ Ajayi, J. F. Ade (1976). History of West Africa. Internet Archive. New York : Columbia University Press. pp. 100–101. ISBN 978-0-231-04103-4.
  19. ↑ GT Obadiah, Gaboism, 2023, Brobadiah and Publishing House, Bwari, FCT-Abuja
  20. ↑ GT Obadiah, Gaboism, 2023, Brobadiah and Publishing House, Bwari, FCT-Abuja
  21. ↑ Asukwo (2013). "The Need to Re-Conceptualize African Traditional Religion".
  22. ↑ "African Traditional Religion | South African History Online". www.sahistory.org.za. Retrieved 2021-06-19.
  23. ↑ Hornung, Erik (2001). Akhenaten and the religion of light. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8725-0. OCLC 48417401.
  24. ↑ Hexham, Irvin ((1981), Lord of the Sky-King of the earth: Zulu Traditional Religion and Belief in the Skrelicsy God, Sciences Religieuses Studies in Religion, vol. 10: 273-78)
  25. ↑ Busia, K. A. (1963). "Has the distinction between primitive and higher religions any sociological significance ?". Archives de sciences sociales des religions. 16 (1): 22–25. doi:10.3406/assr.1963.1996.
  26. ↑ Peterson, Olof. "Foreigen influences on the idea of God in African religions".
  27. 1 2 3 Okwu AS (1979). "Life, Death, Reincarnation, and Traditional Healing in Africa". Issue: A Journal of Opinion. 9 (3): 19–24. doi:10.2307/1166258. JSTOR 1166258.
  28. 1 2 Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. SAGE. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7.
  29. ↑ Baldick, Julian (1997). Black God: the Afroasiatic roots of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim religions. Syracuse University Press:ISBN
  30. ↑ The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800, by Christopher Ehret, James Currey, 2002
  31. ↑ Ehret, Christopher (November 2004). "A Conversation with Christopher Ehret". World History Connected (Interview). Interviewed by Laichas, Tom. Retrieved 30 May 2020. (Citation with date provided here)
  32. ↑ Ndemanu, Michael T. (January 2018). "Traditional African religions and their influences on the worldviews of Bangwa people of Cameroon". Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. 30. Ball State University; Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad: 70–84. doi:10.36366/frontiers.v30i1.405. There is an unwavering belief in life after death in traditional African religions with some even believing in reincarnation...
  33. ↑ Faye, Louis Diène, "Mort et Naissance Le Monde Sereer." Les Nouvelles Edition Africaines (1983), pp. 9-10, 71-2, ISBN
  34. 1 2 Salamone, Frank A. (2004). Levinson, David (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. New York: Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 0-415-94180-6.
  35. 1 2 Chiorazzi, Anthony (2015-10-06). "The spirituality of Africa". Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 2020-11-30.
  36. ↑ Karade, B. The Handbook of Yoruba Religious Concepts, pages 39–46. Samuel Weiser Inc, 1994
  37. ↑ Annemarie De Waal Malefijt (1968) Religion and Culture: an Introduction to Anthropology of Religion, p. 220–249, Macmillan
  38. ↑ "The spirituality of Africa". Harvard Gazette. 2015-10-06. Retrieved 2019-10-31.
  39. ↑ Willie F. Page (2001) Encyclopedia of African History and Culture, Volume 1, p. 55. Published by Facts on File, ISBN
  40. ↑ Peter C. Rogers (2009) Ultimate Truth, Book 1, p100. Published by AuthorHouse, ISBN
  41. ↑ Parrinder, E. G. (1959). "Islam and West African Indigenous Religion". Numen. 6 (2): 130–141. doi:10.2307/3269310. ISSN 0029-5973. JSTOR 3269310.
  42. ↑ Ndemanu, Michael T. (January 2018). "Traditional African religions and their influences on the worldviews of Bangwa people of Cameroon". Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. 30: 70–84. doi:10.36366/frontiers.v30i1.405.
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