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Go gololwa mo bokoloneng ga Aforika

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Lenaane la boipuso jwa mafatshe a Aforika go tswa ka 1950 go tsena 2011

Go gololwa mo bokoloneng ga Aforika e ne e le motseletsele wa ditlhabololo tsa sepolotiki mo Aforika tse di diragetseng go tswa ka legare la dingwaga tsa 1950 go tsena ka 1975, ka nako ya ntwa ya lefatshe la United States le Soviet Union e e itsegeng ka leina la Cold War. Dipuso tsa sekolone di ne tsa neela mafatshe a a eteletseng pele dikgaolo thata ka tsamaiso e e neng e leswefaditswe ke tiriso dikgoka, diphuduego tsa sepolotiki, diphuduego tse di anameng, le botsuolodi jo bo rulagantsweng. Ditiragalo tsa mmangmang mo go gololweng mo bokoloneng ga Aforika di akaretsa botsuolodi jwa Mau Mau, Ntwa ya kwa Algeria, mathata a kwa Congo, Ntwa ya Angola ya boipuso, Phetogo ya kwa Zanzibar le ditiragalo tse di nileng pele ga ntwa ya selegae ya Nigeria.[1][2][3][4][5]

Ditso

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Go kgaratlhela Aforika gareng ga dingwaga tsa 1870 le 1914 e ne e le nako e e botlhokwa thata ya go etelela pele Aforika ga mafatshe a Yuropa, mo go feletseng ka Aforika otlhe le didirisiwa tsa gagwe di dirilwe dikolone ke mafatshe a Yuropa, a a neng a phadisanela go sireletsa mafatshe a a ka kgonagalang mme a tila kgotlhang gareng ga one. Go kgaoganngwa ga Aforika go ne ga tlhomamisiwa kwa bokopannong jwa Berlin jwa ngwaga wa 1885, go sa elwe tlhoko dithulaganyo tsa sepolotiki le botshelo jwa setšhaba.[6][7]

Mafatshe a Aforika ka bontsi a pele ga bokolone a ne a latlhegelwa ke boipuso, kwa ntle ga la Liberia le le neng le nniwa ke batho bantsho ba America ka lekgolo la dingwaga di le lesome le borobabongwe, la bo la lemogiwa fa le ikemetse ke lefatshe la United Nations ka ngwaga wa 1862[8] mme babusi ba Europe bone ba bona le le mo taolong ya lefatshe la United States, le la Ethiopia le le tsereng boipuso ka nako ya ntwa ya Adwa[9] mme le ne la laolwa ke la Italy ka ngwaga wa 1936.[10] Mafatshe a Britain le France a ne a na le mafelo a matona thata, mme a Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium le Portugal le one a ne a na le dikolone.[11]

Ka ngwaga wa 1977, mafatshe a Aforika a le masome a matlhano a ne a tsere boipuso mo magosing a Europe.

Mabaka a kwa ntle

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Kgaratlhelo Aforika: Aforika ka dingwaga tsa 1880 le 1913, pele fela ga ntwa ya ntlha ya lefatshe.
Dikolone tsa Yuropa mo Aforika ka ngwaga wa 1939, ngwaga o ntwa ya bobedi ya maaftshe e simologileng ka yone

Ka lekgolo la dingwaga di le masome a mabedi, boikgogomoso jwa bosetšhab bo ne jwa simolola go anama mo lefatsheng lotlhe, morago ga go fela ga ntwa ya ntlha ya mafatshe, magosi a Jeremane, Astro-Hungarian le Ottoman go ya ka dithata tse di neng di le mo dintlheng tse di le some le bone tsa ga Woodrow Wilson. Le ntswa bo ra matlhale ba ba kgatlhanong le bokolone ba le bantsi ba bone bokgoni jwa kakanyetso ya ga Wilson go tsweledisa pele maikaelelo a bone, Wilson o ne a sena maikaelelo a go diragatsa molao wa go ikemela kwa ntle ga mafatshe a a fentsweng. Dikopo tsa bateteledipele ba mafatshe a Egypt le Tunisia tsa boipuso, tse di ka bong di beile dikgatlhego tsa ba ba berekisanang le bone di ne tsa seka tsa reediwa. Le ntswa dikakanyetso tsa ga Wilson di ne tsa seka tsa fitlhelela kwa gare ga ntwa, molao wa go dira taelo ya mafatshefatshe go ya ka maikemisetso a batho go ne ga sala go ntse go le maleba.

Ma Aforika a le mantsi a lole mo dintweng tsa ntlha le ya bobedi ya mafatshefatshe. ka ntwa ya ntlha ya mafatshe, pereko ya ma Aforika e ne e ele botlhokwa mo bathong ba bophirima, masole a Aforika a ne a lwa mo letsholong la Sinai le palestine. Ma Aforika a le mantsi a ne a sa letlelelwe go tshola dibetsa kgotsa go nna mo maemong a a tshwanang le a batho basweu. Go nwela ga sekepe sa SS Mendi ka ngwaga wa 1917 e ne e le tiragalo e e ngomolang pelo mo ma Aforikeng a a neng a le kwa ntweng, ka babereki ba sekepe ba le makgolo a marataro le bosupa mo go ba le makgolo a marataro masome a mane le borataro ba ba bolailweng e le ma Aforika Borwa a mmala o montsho.[12] Mo ntweng ya mafatshe ya bobedi, ma Aforika a ne a lwa mo dintweng tsa Europe le Asia.[13]

Batho ba borwa jwa Aforika ba ka nna sedikadike ba berekile mo sesoleng sa kwa Yuropa ka ditsela dingwe. Batho ba Aforika ba le bantsi ba ne ba gwetlhiwa kgotsa ba patelediwa go direla sesole ke babusi ba dokolone ka go farologana, mme bangwe ba ne ba ithaopa ba batla ditshono tse di botoka go gaisa tse ba   ka di bonang mo perekong ya puso.[14] Se se ne sa baka go nna podi matseba ka polotiki le tsholofelo ya tlotla e e kwa godimo le go ikemela ka dinao, mo go neng go sa kgotsofadiwe pele.[15] Ka ba ba fentseng ba ne ba sena maikaelelo ape a go ikgogela morago mo dikoloneng fa ntwa e ya bokhutlong, mme bogolo ba ne ba ka ikaega ka didirisiwa le batho ba ba ka berekang ba dikolone tsa Aforika ka nako ya dipaakanyo tsa morago ga ntwa kwa Yuropa, matona a dikolone a ne a lebela tlase seabe sa Aforika mo phenyong e e pataganetsweng.[14]

Ka kgwedi ya Tlhakole e le lesome le bobedi ngwaga wa 1941, tautona wa United States Franklin D. Roosevelt le tona wa Britain Winston Churchill ba ne ba kopana go buisana ka lefatshe morago ga ntwa ya bobedi. Maduo e ne ya nna tumalano ya Atlantic.[16] E ne e se tumalano ebile e sa neelwa palamente ya Britain kgotsa khiduthamaga ya paakonyo ya United States Mme e ne ya nna tokomane e e dirisiwang thata.[17] Molao wa boraro o ne o bua ka tshwanelo ya go tsaya tshwetso ya gore batho ba batla puso e e ntseng jang le go busetsa go ipusa.

Tona Churchill o ne a nganga mo paamenteng ya Britain fa tokomane e e bidiwang "mafatshe le dikgaolo tsa Yuropa tse di mo taolong ya Nazi".[18] Tautona Roosevelt o ne a supa fa e lebane lefatshe lotlhe ka bophara. Mapolotiki a a kgatlhanong le bokolone a ne a bona e lebane magosi a bokolone.[19]

Ka ngwaga wa 1948, dingwaga di le tharo morago ga ntwa ya bobedi ya mafatshe e sena go fela, kitsiso ya mafatshe ya ditshwanelo tsa setho e ne ya tlhomamisa gore batho botlhe ba tshotswe ba gololesegile ebile ba lekana.[20]

Morago ga ntwa ya bobedi ya mafatshe, dikolone tsa America le tsa Aforika di ne tsa tsenya lefatshe la Britain kgatelelo go ya ka molao wa Atlantic. Morago ga ntwa, batho bangwe ba Britain ba ne ba bona dikolone dinhwe tsa Aforika di sa nonofa. Batho ba Britain ba dikolone ba ne ba simolola puso ya batho ka batho mo dikgaolong tsa bokolone. Lefatshe la Britain le ne la patelesega go dumalana mme Churchill a ganana le mogopolo wa go ikemela ga mafatshe a a laolwang ke a mangwe.

Lefatshe la Italy, le le neng le  na le dikolone le ne la latlhegelwa ke bogosi jwa lone jwa kwa Aforika jwa Italian East Africa, Italian Ethiopia, Italian Eritrea, Italian Somalia le Italian Lybia ka ntlha ya ntwa ya bobedi ya mafatshe.[21] Fa godimo ga foo, dikolone di tshwana le Nigeria, Senegal le Ghana di ne tsa dira bojotlhe go ikemela ka baeteledipele ba dikolone ba ne ba lapisitswe ke maiteko a ntwa.[22]

Tshwantshanyo ya Aforika wa 1950 le wa 1960

Kitsiso ya United Nations ya mgwaga wa 1960 ya go neela mafatshe a dikolone le batho ba one boipuso, e ne e supa fa go tlontlololwa ga bokolone e le go rontsha ditshwanelo tsa setho, le gore thata e tshwanetse go busediwa kwa mafatsheng kgotsa dikgaolo tse di amegang.[23]

Mabaka a mo gae

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Tsuololo ya itsholelo ya dikolone e ne e akaretsa go faposa go ntshiwa ga didirisiwa, jaaka meepo, dipoelo tsa bana le seabe ba Yuropa mo boemong jwa ditlhabololo tsa mo gae, go ne ga baka matlhotlhapelo a tsa itsholelo le botshelo jwa batho.[24] Mo mafatsheng a pele a Aforika, kgololesego e ne e le botlhokwa ebile letsholo la sepolotiki le ka dirwa mo go yone.[25][26]

Ka dingwaga tsa 1930, babusi ba dikolone ba ne ba rotloetsa palo potlana ya baeteledipele ba Aforika ba maemo ba ba ithutileng kwa dikolong tsa ithutelo ditiro tse dikgolwane kwa bophirima, kwa ba neng ba itse ka dikakakanyo di tshwana le go ikemela. Le ntswa boipuso bo ne bo sa rotloediwe, ditumalano gareng ga babusi ba le ba dikolone bo ne jwa nna teng, batho ba tshwana le Jomo Kenyatta (wa kwa Kenya), Kwame Nkrumah (wa kwa Gold Coast kwa e leng Ghana gompieno), Julius Nyerere (wa kwa Tanganyika kwa e leng Tanzania jaanong), Leopold Sedar Senghor (wa kwa Senegal), Nnamdi Azikiwe (wa kwa Nigeria), Patrice Lumumba (wa kwa Democratic Republic of the Congo), Antonio Agostinho Neto (wa kwa koloneng ya Portuguese West Africa) kwa e leng Angola le Felix Houphouet-Boigny (wa kwa Ivory Coast) ba ne ba etelela pele dikgaratlho tsa go ipusa ga Aforika.

Ka nako ya ntwa ya bobedi ya mafatshe, mehama le ditoropo singwe tsa Aforika di ne tsa gola fa mekoro e e neng e tlhokometse ebile e sireleditse lewatle la Atlantic e iletsa go tsamaisiwa ka mekoro ga didirisiwa tsa tlholego go ya Europe.[27]

Mo nakong, merafe ya ditoropo, mehama le makgotla a kgwebo a ne a gola, se se baka go tlhabologa ga thutego le thuto, go bo go baka gape go tlhamiwa ga dipampiri tsa dikgang tse di emang nokeng go ipusa.[27]

Ka ngwaga wa 1945, bokopano jwa botlhano jwa Aforika o o tshwaraganneg bo ne jwa gwetlha go gololwa mo bokoloneng, batsaya karolo ba ne ba akaretsa ditautona tsa mo bokamosong tsa Ghana, kenya, Malawi le balweladitshwanelo ba bangwe.[28]

Phetogo ya boipuso

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Morago ga ntwa ya bobedi ya mafatshe, kgololesego mo bokoloneng e ne ya anama le kgaolo ya Aforika ka dikgaolo di le dintsi di ne di tsaya boipuso go tswa mo bokoloneng jwa mafatshe a Europe.

Ka ngwaga wa 1941, kgwedi ya Phatwe, tautona wa lefatshe la United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt le tona wa Britain Winston Churchill ba ne ba kopana go buisana ka maikaelelo a bone morago ga ntwa. Mo bokopanong joo, ba ne ba dumalana le tumalano ya Atlantic, e bontlha jwa yone bo neng bo supa fa ba tlaa "tlotla ditshwanelo tsa batho botlhe go itlhophela mofuta wa puso o ba eletsang go tshela ka fa tlase ga one; ebile ba eletsa go bona ditshwanelo tsa boipuso le go ikemela di busediwa ba di tserweng mo go bone ka dikgoka.[29] Tumalano e e ne ya nna kgatelo pele ya boipuso le go ikemela ga mafatshe morago ga ntwa ya bobedi, mo go neng go golela pele mo Aforika ka bophara.

Babusi ba Europe ba le mo dikolotong tsa morago ga ntwa, ba ne ba sa tlhole ba kgona go laola dikolone tsa bone tsa Aforika. Se se ne sa letla ba ba batlang go ikemela ba Aforika go buisana ka go gololwa ka bofefo le go sena batho ba ba latlhegelwang ke matshelo. Dikgaolo dingwe, le fa go ntse jalo, di ne tsa latlhegelwa ke batho ba le bantsi ba tlhokafala e le maduo a go lwela boipuso.

Moitseanape wa ditso James Meriweather o nganga gore molao wa America mabapi le Aforika o supiwa ke go sa tseye lotlhakore, mo go neng go ema nokeng boipuso jwa Aforika mme gape ba solofetsa baeteledipele ba bokolone gore mafelo a bone a tla bo a ntse a le teng. Washington o ne a batla ditlhopha tse di siameng tsa Aforika go etelela pele mafatshe a a ipusang, ka mafoko a mangwe a se a bosetshaba ebile e se a puso ya batho ka batho. Meriweather o ne a nganga gore makgotla a eseng a puso a ne a rotloetsa molao wa America mabapi le Aforika. Ba ne ba gatelela mebuso le metheo e e ikemetseng go emisa go beeltsa mo mafatshe a Aforika a a sa etelelwang pele ke bontsi jwa batho. Maiteko a a ne a thusa go fetola molao wa America mo Aforika Borwa, jaaka go bonwe ka molao o o kgatlhanong le tlhaolele wa ngwaga wa 1986.[30]

Lefatshe[31] Leina la bokolone Babusi ba kolone letsatsi la boipuiso Tautona wa ntlha wa lefatshe Boipuso bo tserwe ka
Aforika Borwa Cape Colony

Colony of Natal Orange River Colony Transvaal Colony

 United Kingdom Motsheganong a le masome a mararo le motso ngwaga wa 1910 Louis Botha Molao wa Aforika Borwa wa 1909, le setse ka fa tlase ga molao wa batho ba se bantsi go fitlhelela ka ngwag wa 1994.
Egypt Sultanate of Egypt United Kingdom Tlhakole a le masome mabedi le borobabobedi Fuad I Phetogo ya Egypt ya 1919
Emirate of Cyrenaica British Military Administration United Kingdom Mopitlo a rogwa ngwaga wa 1949 Idris

Bogosi jwa Britain

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Ghana

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Bogosi jwa Britain ka ngwaga wa 1959
Kgololesego ya Aforika mo Britain. Ka ngwaga wa 1980, dikolone tsotlhe tsa Britain di ne di golotswe mo bokoloneng.

Ka kgwedi ya Mopitlo e le malatsi a marataro ngwaga wa 1957, lefatshe la Ghana (le le neng le bidiwa Gold Coast pele) le nnile lefatshe la ntlha go kgabaganya Aforika go tsaya boipuso go tswa mo bokoloneng jwa mafatshe a Europe.[32] Go simolola ka bokopano jwa Aforika o o tshwaraganeng, moeteledipele wa boipuso jwa Gold Coast Kwame Nkrumah o ne a papamatsa maikaelelo a gagwe. Mo kitsisong ya bokopano, o ne a kwala jaana, "re dumela mo ditshwanelong tsa batho botlhe gore ba ipuse. Re tlhomamisa tshwanelo ya batho botlhe ba ba mo bokoloneng go laola bokamoso jwa bone. Dikolone tsotlhe di tshwanetse go gololwa mo taolong ya mafatshe a sele, go sa kgathalesege gore a ke sepolotiki kana itsholelo.[33]

Ka ngwaga wa 1948, masole a pele a le mararo a kwa Ghana a ne a bolawa ke mapodisi a kolone mo mogwantong. Ditlhaselo di tlhagile kwa Accra, mme baeteledipele ba bangwe le Nkrumah ba ne ba tshwarwa ka nakwana, tiragalo e e ne ya tlhotlheletsa letsholo la boipuso. Morago ga go ntshiwa kwa kgolegelong, Nkrumah o ne a tlhama phathi ya Convention People' Party (CPP), e e neng ya bolotsa letsholo la go ema nokeng boipuso ka sekao sa "puso ya rona gone jaana!". [34]

Ka Tlhakole ngwaga wa 1951, phathi ya CCP e be ya nna le thata ya polotiki ka go fenya ditilo di le masome mararo le bone mo go tee di masome a mararo le borobabobedi, se sengwe e le sa ga Nkrumah o a neng a le mo kgolegelong ka nako eo. Puso ya Britain e ne ya sekaseka molaomotheo wa Gold Coast go fa batho ba Ghana palo e e kwa godimo mo molaong wa 1951. Ka ngwaga wa 1956, lefatshe la Ghana le ne la kopa boipuso mo mafatsheng a selekane, no le neng la bo neelwa ka kagiso ka ngwaga wa 1957 Nkrumah e le tona, Mmamosadinyana e le moeteledipele.[35]

Diphetogo

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Tona Harold Macmillan o ne a bua mafoko a a tumileng a "phetogo" kwa Afrika Borwa ka Tlhakole ngwag wa 1960, kwa a neng a buisana le palamente ya lefatshe leo ka phetogo e e tla diragalang mo Aforika. Macmillan o ne a batla go fema ntwa e e tshwanang ya bokolone e lefatshe la France le neng le e e lwa kwa Algeria. Ka fa tlase ga puso ya gagwe e le tona, kgololesego e tsweletse ka pele.[36]

Dikolone tsa Britain tse di setseng mo Aforika, kwa ntle ya ya Southern Rhodesia, di ne tsa neelwa boipuso ka ngwaga wa 1968. Go ikgogela morago ga Britain mo dikgaolong tsa borwa le botlhaba jwa Aforika e ne e se tsamaiso e e bonolo. Boipuso jwa lefatshe la Kenya bo ne jwa salwa morago ke botsuolodi jwa Mau Mau. Kwa Rhodesia, kitsiso ya boipuso ya ngwaga wa 1965 ke palo potlana ya batho basweu e ne ya baka ntwa ya selegae e e tsereng lobaka lwa go fitlhelela ka tumalano ya ntlo ya Lancaster ka ngwaga wa 1979, e e neng ya baya melao ya boipuso jo bo amogelwang ka ngwaga wa 1980, e le lefatshe le lešha la Zimbabwe.[37]

Lefatshe la Britain le sutisitse go busa dilo tse di santseng di le tshotse tsa Aforika ka go baya monwana tumalano ya semmuso ka ngwaga wa 2025, e busetsa taolo ya lone ya setlhaketlhake sa Chagos kwa Mauritius. Mo tumalanong e, lefelo la Diego Garcia la dikhilomithara di le masome a mararo le borobabobedi di busediwa kwa Mauritius ka ponyo ya leitlho. Tumalano e e letla go tswelela go berekisanwa mmogo ga Anglo-America kwa Diego Garcia.[38]

Belgium

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Sefikantswe sa ga Leopold wa bobedi wa Belgium a pagame pitse

Lefatshe la Belgium le ne le laola mafelo a le mantsi ka nako ya bokolone, Mafelo a a akaretsa Belgian Congo (kwa e leng DRC gompieno) go tswa ka ngwaga wa 1908 go tsena ka 1960 le Ruanda-Urundi (kwa e leng Rwanda le Burundi gompieno) go tswa ka ngwaga wa 1922 go tsena ka 1962. Le ne le na le lefatshe le le seng kae kwa China go tswa ka ngwaga wa 1902 go tsena ka 1931, gape e ne e le motsamaisi wa lefelo la Tangier International Zone kwa Morocco.

98% ya lefatshe la Belgium kwa moseja ga mawatle e ne e le kolone e le nngwefela, e feta lefatshe la Belgium ga masome a supa le borataro, kwa go neng go itsiwe e le Belgian Congo. Kolone e e tlhamilwe ka ngwaga wa 1908 morago ga go busetsa taolo kwa Congo Free State, e e neng e le thoto ya ga Kgosi wa Belgium Kgosi Leopold wa bobedi. Tiriso dikgoka e e neng e edirisiwa ke babusi ba kgaolo ya Free State mo bathong ba Congo le go tsamaiso e e setlhogo ya itsholelo go ne ga baka kgatelelo ya puso mo lefatsheng la Belgium go tsaya taolo semmuso ya lefatshe. Molao wa Belgium kwa Congo o ne o ikaegile mo borarong jwa dikolone ebong lefatshe, borongwa le dikgatlhego tsa dikomopone tse di ikemetseng. Ka dingwaga tsa 1940 go tsena tsa 1950, lefatshe la Congo le ne la itemogela tlhabololo e e tseneletseng, batsamaisi ba ne ba ikaelela go le dika kolone e e tla nnang sekai mo go tse dingwe. Lefatshe la Congo le ne la tsaya boipuso ka letsholo la go tsaya boipuso le ne le aname. Le ne la tsaya boipuso go bidiwa Republic of Congo-Leopoldville ka ngwaga wa 1960.

Mo dikoloneng tse dinwge tsa Belgium, e e botlhokwa thata e ne e le ya Ruanda-Urundi, bontlha jwa German East Africa, bo bo neng jwa neelwa Belgium e le maikaeleo a League of Nations, fa lefatshe la Germany le latlhegelwa ke dikolone tsa lone ka phelelo ya ntwa ya ntlha ya mafatshe. Morago ga phetogo ya Rwanda, e ne ya nna mafatshe a a ikemesteng a Burundi le Rwanda ka ngwaga wa 1962.[39]

Metswedi

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  1. ↑ Hatch, John (1967). Africa: The Rebirth of Self-Rule. Oxford University Press.
  2. ↑ Gifford, Prosser; Louis, William Roger, eds. (1982). The transfer of power in Africa: decolonization, 1940–1960. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-02568-2. OCLC 8169830. OL 19169397W.
  3. ↑ Birmingham, David (1995). The Decolonization of Africa. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85728-540-6. OCLC 212163399. OL 14849261W.
  4. ↑ Hargreaves, John D. (1996). Decolonization in Africa (2nd ed.). doi:10.4324/9781315843193. ISBN 978-1-315-84319-3. OCLC 897463837. OL 2966496W.
  5. ↑ von Albertini, Rudolf [in German] (1971). Decolonization: the Administration and Future of the Colonies, 1919-1960. Translated by Garvie, Francisca. Doubleday. OCLC 1156399427. OL 1316698W.
  6. ↑ Appiah, Anthony; Gates Jr., Henry Louis (2010). Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9. Retrieved 15 July 2025.
  7. ↑ "A Brief History of the Berlin Conference". teacherweb.ftl.pinecrest.edu. Archived from the original on 15 February 2018. Retrieved 15 July 2025
  8. ↑ "The Revolutionary Summer of 1862". National Archives. 20 April 2018. Retrieved 15 July 2025
  9. ↑ "Adwa Day in Ethiopia | Tesfa Tours". www.tesfatours.com. 2 March 2018. Retrieved 15 July 2025.
  10. ↑ "Fascismo: guerra d'Etiopia". www.storiaxxisecolo.it. Retrieved 15 July 2025.
  11. ↑ Hunt, Michael (2017). The World Transformed: 1945 to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-19-937102-0.
  12. ↑ "Africans played key, often unheralded, role in World War I". AP News. 1 December 2018. Retrieved 16 July 2025.
  13. ↑ Killingray, David (2010). Fighting for Britain : African soldiers in the Second World War. Martin Plaut. Woodbridge, Suffolk: James Currey. ISBN 978-1-84615-789-9. OCLC 711105036.
  14. 1 2 "Africa's Role in WWII Remembered - Fifteen Eighty Four | Cambridge University Press". 25 August 2015. Retrieved 17 July 2025.
  15. ↑ Ferguson, Ed, and A. Adu Boahen. (1990). "African Perspectives On Colonialism." The International Journal Of African Historical Studies 23 (2): 334. doi:10.2307/219358.
  16. ↑ "The Atlantic Conference & Charter, 1941". history.state.gov. Retrieved 17 July 2025 The Atlantic Charter was a joint declaration released by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill on August 14, 1941, following a meeting of the two heads of state in Newfoundland.
  17. ↑ Karski, Jan (2014). The Great Powers and Poland: From Versailles to Yalta. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 330. ISBN 978-1-4422-2665-4. Retrieved 17 July 2025.
  18. ↑ Winston Churchill (9 September 1941). "War Situation". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). Vol. 374. Parliament of the United Kingdom: Commons. col. 69.
  19. ↑ Reeves, Mark (10 August 2017). "'Free and Equal Partners in Your Commonwealth': The Atlantic Charter and Anticolonial Delegations to London, 1941–3". Twentieth Century British History. 29 (2): 259–283. doi:10.1093/tcbh/hwx043. ISSN 0955-2359. PMID 29800336.
  20. ↑ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights". United Nations. 1948. Retrieved 17 July 2025
  21. ↑ Kelly, Saul (1 September 2000). "Britain, the united states, and the end of the Italian empire in Africa, 1940–52". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 28 (3): 51–70. doi:10.1080/03086530008583098. ISSN 0308-6534. S2CID 159656946.
  22. ↑ Assa, O. (2006). A History of Africa. Volume 2. Kampala East Africa Education Publisher ltd.
  23. ↑ "Declaration on the granting of independence to colonial countries and peoples". undocs.org. 14 December 1960. Retrieved 17 July 2025
  24. ↑ [Boahen, A. (TND) (1990) Africa Under Colonial Domination, Volume 7]
  25. ↑ Kendhammer, Brandon (1 January 2007). "DuBois the pan-Africanist and the development of African nationalism". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 30 (1): 51–71. doi:10.1080/01419870601006538. ISSN 0141-9870. S2CID 55991352.
  26. ↑ Falola, Toyin; Agbo, Chukwuemeka (2018), Shanguhyia, Martin S.; Falola, Toyin (eds.), "Nationalism and African Intellectuals", The Palgrave Handbook of African Colonial and Postcolonial History, New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, pp. 621–641, doi:10.1057/978-1-137-59426-6_25, ISBN 978-1-137-59426-6, retrieved 17 July 2025
  27. 1 2 "Decolonisation of Africa". selfstudyhistory.com. 25 January 2015. Archived from the original on 10 October 2018.
  28. ↑ Fleshman, Michael (August 2010). "A 'Wind Of Change' That Transformed The Continent". United Nations. Africa Renewal. Archived from the original on 5 September 2019.
  29. ↑ "Atlantic Charter", 14 August 1941, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_16912.htm Archived 8 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ↑ James Hunter Meriwether, Tears, Fire, and Blood: The United States and the Decolonization of Africa (University of North Carolina Press, 2021).
  31. ↑ Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonisation was achieved jointly by multiple countries or where the current country is formed by the merger of previously decolonised countries. Although Ethiopia was administered as a colony in the aftermath of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and was recognized by the international community as such at the time, it is not listed here as its brief period under Italian rule (which lasted for a little more than five years and ended with the return of the previous native government) is now usually seen as a military occupation.
  32. ↑ Esseks, John D. "Political independence and economic decolonisation: the case of Ghana under Nkrumah." Western Political Quarterly 24.1 (1971): 59-64.
  33. ↑ Nkrumah, Kwame, Fifth Pan-African Congress, Declaration to Colonial People of the World (Manchester, England, 1945).
  34. ↑ "POLITICAL PARTY ACTIVITY IN GHANA—1947 TO 1957 - Government of Ghana". www.ghana.gov.gh. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2025
  35. ↑ Daniel Yergin; Joseph Stanislaw (2002). The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy. Simon and Schuster. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-684-83569-3.
  36. ↑ Philip E. Hemming, "Macmillan and the End of the British Empire in Africa." in R. Aldous and S. Lee, eds., Harold Macmillan and Britain's World Role (1996) pp. 97-121, excerpt Archived 5 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  37. ↑ James, pp. 618–21.
  38. ↑ "Chagos Deal Is Done: Sovereignty Is Returned to Mauritius". e-ir.info. 25 May 2025. Retrieved 18 July 2025.
  39. ↑ "Belgium's role in Rwandan genocide". Le Monde Diplomatique. 1 June 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2025.
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