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Hermann Joseph Muller

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Hermann Joseph Muller (Sedimonthole 21, 1890 – Moranang 5, 1967) e ne e le moitseanape wa dijini wa Moamerika yo o neng a abelwa

Hermann Joseph Muller

ForMemRS
Muller in 1952
Tsalo(1890-12-21)Sedimonthole 21, 1890
New York City, U.S.
LesoMoranang 5, 1967(1967-04-05) (aged 76)
Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.
Alma materColumbia University
O itsegi kaThe genetic effects of radiation
Mosadi
  • Jessie Marie Jacobs (m. 1923)
  • Dorothea Kantorowicz (m. 1939)
Bana2, including David E. Muller
MasikaMala Htun (granddaughter)
O fetheletse1927

Mokgele wa Nobele wa 1946 wa Fisioloji kgotsa Kalafi, "ka ntlha ya go ribolola gore diphetogo tsa dijini di ka tlhotlhelediwa ke marang a X".[2]Muller o ne a tlhagisa ka dikotsi tsa nako e telele tsa go wa ga marang a a tswang mo ntweng ya nuklea le go dira diteko tsa nuklea, mme seno se ne sa felela ka gore setšhaba se sekaseke mekgwa eno ka kelotlhoko thata.

Botshelo jwa bogologolo

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]

Muller o tsholetswe kwa New York City, e le morwa wa ga Frances (Lyons) le Hermann Joseph Muller yo Mogolo, yo e neng e le modiri wa diatla yo o neng a bereka ka ditshipi. Muller e ne e le Moamerika wa kokomana ya boraro yo bagologolwane ba ga rraagwe e neng e le Bakatoliki kwa tshimologong mme ba tla kwa United States go tswa kwa Koblenz.[3]Lelapa la ga mmaagwe e ne e le la Bajuta ba ba tlhakaneng (ba tswa mo Bajuteng ba Spain le Mapotokisi) le ba Anglican, mme ba ne ba tswa kwa Boritane.[4][5]Gareng ga ditsala tsa gagwe tsa ntlha go ne go na le Alfred Kroeber (Kroeber e ne e le rraagwe Ursula Le Guin) mme ditsala tsa gagwe tsa ntlha tse di kileng tsa tlosiwa e ne e le Herbert J. Muller.[6] Fa Muller a ne a le mo dingwageng tsa bolesome, o ne a tsena kereke ya Unitarian mme o ne a itsaya e le modumedi wa bomodimo; kwa sekolong se segolo, o ne a nna molatolamodimo.[7]O ne a dira sentle thata mo dikolong tsa puso. Fa a le dingwaga di le 16, o ne a tsena kwa Kholetšheng ya Columbia. Go tloga ka semesetara ya gagwe ya ntlha, o ne a kgatlhegela thutatshelo; o ne a nna mosokologi wa ntlha wa kgopolo ya ga Mendelian-chromosome ya gore ditshedi di na le ditshedi tse di farologaneng—le kgopolo ya gore dijini di fetoga le go tlhopha ga ditshedi tsa tlholego ke motheo wa thutotlhagelelo. O ne a tlhoma tlelapo ya thutatshelo mme gape a nna motshegetsi wa eugenics; dikgolagano magareng ga thutatshelo le setšhaba e ne e tla nna selo se a neng a tshwenyegile ka sone ka metlha. Muller o ne a bona dikirii ya Bachelor ya Botsweretshi ka 1910.[8]

Muller o ne a sala kwa Columbia (thulaganyo e e neng e itsege thata ya thutophologolo ya Amerika ka nako eo, ka ntlha ya ga E. B. Wilson le baithuti ba gagwe) go ya go aloga. O ne a simolola go kgatlhegela tiro ya dijini tsa Drosophila ya laboratori ya dintsi ya ga Thomas Hunt Morgan morago ga gore batho ba ba tlhatswang mabotlolo ba pele ga kalogo e bong Alfred Sturtevant le Calvin Bridges ba tsene mo tlelapong ya gagwe ya thutatshelo. Ka 1911–1912, o ne a ithuta go fetoga ga dijo kwa Yunibesithing ya Cornell, mme a nna a tshwaragane le Columbia. O ne a latela drosophilists jaaka dimmapa tsa ntlha tsa dijini di tlhagelela go tswa mo ditekong tsa ga Morgan, mme a tsenela setlhopha sa ga Morgan ka 1912 (morago ga dingwaga di le pedi tsa go tsaya karolo go go sa tlhomamang).[9]

Mo setlhopheng sa dintsi, dilo tse Muller a neng a di ntsha e ne e le tsa kgopolo fela—ditlhaloso tsa dipholo tsa ditekelelo le dikgopolo le dipolelelopele tsa ditekelelo tse disha. Le fa go ntse jalo, mo setsong se se neng se tlhagelela sa tirisanommogo sa ba-drosophilist, go ne go abelwa sekoloto go ikaegilwe ka dipholo go na le dikgopolo; Muller o ne a ikutlwa a tsieditswe fa a ne a tlogelwa kwa ntle ga dikgatiso tse dikgolo.[10]

Mokgwa wa go itshetsa le tswelelopele

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]

Ka 1914, Julian Huxley o ne a naya Muller tiro kwa Setheong sa Raese sa William Marsh se se sa tswang go tlhongwa, se jaanong e leng sekolong se se golwane sa Rice; o ne a itlhaganelela go wetsa dikirii ya gagwe ya Ngaka ya filosofi mme a fudugela kwa Houston kwa tshimologong ya ngwaga wa dithuto wa 1915–1916 (dikirii ya gagwe e ne ya ntshiwa ka 1916). Kwa Rice, Muller o ne a ruta thutatshelo mme a tswelela ka tiro ya laboratori ya Drosophila. Ka 1918, o ne a tshitshinya tlhaloso ya diphetogo tse di gakgamatsang tse di sa tsweleleleng mo Oenothera lamarckiana tse e neng e le motheo wa kgopolo ya ga Hugo de Vries ya phetogo ya dijini: "dibolaya tse di lekalekanang" di ne tsa letla go kokoanngwa ga diphetogo tse di sa tlhomamang, mme go kgabaganya ka sewelo mo godimo ga ditiragalo go ne ga felela ka gore ditiragalo tseno di tlhagelele ka tshoganyetso. Ka mafoko a mangwe, diteko tsa ga de Vries di ne di ka tlhalosiwa ka kgopolo ya ga Mendelian ya di- chromosome. Tiro ya ga Muller e ne e ntse e tlhomile mogopolo thata mo selekanyong sa diphetogo tsa dijini le diphetogo tse di bolayang. Ka 1918, Morgan, yo o neng a na le diatla tse dikhutshwane ka gonne bontsi jwa baithuti ba gagwe le bathusi ba gagwe ba ne ba kwadisitswe go tsena mo Ntweng ya Lefatshe I ya U.S., o ne a dira gore Muller a boele kwa Columbia go ya go ruta le go atolosa thulaganyo ya gagwe ya go dira diteko.[11]

Kwa Columbia, Muller le modirisanimmogo le ene le tsala ya gagwe ya nako e telele e bong Edgar Altenburg ba ne ba tswelela ka patlisiso ka diphetogo tse di bolayang tsa dijini. Mokgwa o mogolo wa go lemoga diphetogo tse di ntseng jalo tsa dijini e ne e le go lekanya selekanyo sa bong jwa bana ba dintshi tse di namagadi. Ba ne ba bolelela pele gore selekanyo seno se ne se tla farologana go tswa go 1:1 ka ntlha ya diphetogo tse di sa siamang mo chromosomeng ya X, tse di neng di tla bontshiwa fela mo banneng (ba ba neng ba se na allele e e dirang mo chromosomeng ya bobedi ya X). Muller o ne a fitlhela go ikaega thata ka themperetšha mo seelong sa phetogo ya dijini, mme seno sa dira gore a dumele gore phetogo ya dijini e e itiragalelang fela ke yone e e neng e laola (le gore kwa tshimologong a fokotse seabe sa mabaka a kwa ntle a a jaaka marang a ionizing kgotsa dikhemikhale). Ka 1920, Muller le Altenburg ba ne ba kwala mmogo pampiri e e botlhokwa mo Dijining ka ga "dijini tse di fetolang" tse di laolang bogolo jwa diphuka tsa Drosophila tse di fetogileng. Ka 1919, Muller o ne a ribolola sengwe se se botlhokwa se se fetogang (se moragonyana se neng sa fitlhelwa e le go fetoga ga di- chromosome) se se neng se lebega se gatelela go kgabaganya, mme seno se ne sa bula ditsela tse disha mo dithutong tsa selekanyo sa phetogo ya ditshedi. Le fa go ntse jalo, go tlhomiwa ga gagwe kwa Columbia ga go a ka ga tswelela pele; o ne a amogela tiro e e tswang kwa sekolong segolwane ya Texas mme a tswa kwa Columbia morago ga selemo sa 1920.[12]

Muller o ne a ruta kwa Yunibesithing ya Texas go tloga ka 1920 go fitlha ka 1932. Ka bonako fela fa a sena go boela kwa Texas, o ne a nyala moporofesara wa dipalo e bong Jessie Marie Jacobs, yo a neng a ratana le ene pelenyana. Mo dingwageng tsa gagwe tsa ntlha kwa Texas, tiro ya ga Muller ya Drosophila e ne e tsamaya ka bonya; tshedimosetso go tswa mo dithutong tsa gagwe tsa selekanyo sa phetogo ya dijini e ne e le thata go e ranola. Ka 1923, o ne a simolola go dirisa radium le marang a X,[13] mme go ne go le thata go lekanya kamano fa gare ga marang le phetogo ya dijini ka gonne marang a a ntseng jalo le one a ne a bolaya dintshi. Mo pakeng eno, o ne a nna le seabe gape mo go tsa eugenics le tsa dijini tsa batho. O ne a dira patlisiso ka mafatlha a a kgaoganeng fa a tsholwa e e neng e lebega e bontsha gore go na le karolo e e nonofileng ya I.Q. Muller o ne a nyatsa ditaelo tse dišwa tsa mokgatlho wa eugenics (jaaka go nna kgatlhanong le bofaladi), mme o ne a na le tsholofelo ka ga ditsholofelo tsa eugenics e e siameng.[14][15]Ka 1932, kwa Khonkereseng ya Boraro ya Boditšhabatšhaba ya Eugenics, Muller o ne a neela puo mme a bolela gore, "eugenics e ka nna ya itekanela lotso lwa batho, mme fela mo setšhabeng se se rulagantsweng ka kelotlhoko go solegela botlhe molemo".[16]

Go ribololwa ga phetogo ya dijini tsa X-ray

Ka 1926, go ne ga simolola motseletsele wa diphitlhelelo tse dikgolo. Ka Ngwanatsele, Muller o ne a dira diteko tse pedi ka ditekanyetso tse di farologaneng tsa marang a X, ya bobedi ya tsone e ne ya dirisa setoko sa go kgabaganya se se gatelelang ("ClB") se a neng a se bone ka 1919. Kgolagano e e tlhapileng, ya bontsi fa gare ga marang le diphetogo tse di bolayang e ne ya tlhagelela ka bonako. Thibololo ya ga Muller e ne ya dira gore metswedi ya dikgang e tlhotlheletsege morago ga gore a neele pampiri e e bidiwang "Bothata jwa Phetolo ya Dijini" kwa Khonkereseng ya Botlhano ya Boditšhabatšhaba ya Dijini kwa Berlin; e ne e tla mo dira mongwe wa batlhalefi ba setšhaba ba ba itsegeng thata mo masimologong a lekgolo la bo20 la dingwaga. Ka 1928, ba bangwe ba ne ba boeletsa dipholo tsa gagwe tse di gakgamatsang, ba di atolosetsa kwa ditsheding tse dingwe tsa sekao, tse di jaaka diboko le mmidi. Mo dingwageng tse di latelang, o ne a simolola go phasalatsa dikotsi tse di ka nnang teng tsa go tsenwa ke marang mo bathong (jaaka dingaka tse di dirisang didirisiwa tsa X-ray kgapetsakgapetsa kgotsa barekisi ba ditlhako ba ba neng ba tsenya marang mo dinaong tsa bareki ba bone).[17]

Laboratori ya gagwe e ne ya gola ka bonako, mme e ne ya ngotlega gape morago ga go simolola ga Kwelotlase e Kgolo ya Ikonomi. Segolobogolo morago ga go phutlhama ga mmaraka wa dithoto, Muller o ne a nna a sa solofele sepe ka ditsholofelo tsa bokapitale. Bangwe ba maloko a gagwe a laboratori a a neng a mo etetse ba ne ba tswa kwa USSR, mme o ne a thusa go rulaganya le go anamisa lekwalodikgang la baithuti la molema le le seng kafa molaong, The Spark. E ne e le nako e e thata mo go Muller mo go tsa saense le ka namana; lenyalo la gagwe le ne le phutlhama, mme o ne a ntse a sa kgotsofalele botshelo jwa gagwe kwa Texas. Go sa le jalo, go fokotsega ga mokgatlho wa eugenics, ka tsela e e sotlang e e neng ya potlakisiwa ke tiro ya gagwe e e neng e supa dikgolagano tse di neng di tlhokomologilwe pele fa gare ga tikologo le dijini, go ne go raya gore dikgopolo tsa gagwe ka ga isagwe ya thutotlhagelelo ya batho di ne di fokoditse tshusumetso mo setšhabeng.[18]Puo ya ga Muller pele ga Khonferense ya Boraro ya Boditšhabatšhaba ya Eugenics kwa New York e ile ya akgolwa ka go tshwaya bokhutlo jwa Bo-Galton, mme gongwe le eugenics ka boyone, jaaka mokgatlho o o tlwaelegileng mo saenseng. H. Bentley Glass, molebeledi wa motlha wa segompieno le Ph.D. moithuti wa ga Muller, o ne a tla re puo ya ga Muller "e batlile e wetsa tiro ya Mokgatlho wa Eugenics".[19]Muller o ne a bolelela ba ba neng ba kokoane gore dikeletso tsa eugenic ga di kitla di tlhola di fitlhelelwa, ka gonne tsamaiso ya bokapitale e ntsha maitlhomo a a sa siamang a tiro ya motho ka bongwe, mme o ne a nyatsa ditlholego tsa setlhopha se se laolang, le mofuta wa setšhaba se ba neng ba se tlhama.[20]

Tiro kwa Yuropa

First Street 1001, Muller House

Ka Lwetse 1932, Muller o ne a fudugela kwa Berlin go ya go dira le moitseanape wa dijini wa Mo-Russia yo o tswang kwa dinageng tse dingwe e bong Nikolay Timofeeff-Ressovsky; loeto lo lo neng lo ikaeletswe go nna loeto lo lo lekanyeditsweng lwa sabata lo lo neng lwa nna loeto lwa dingwaga di le robedi, lwa dinaga di le tlhano. Kwa Berlin, o ne a kopana le baitseanape ba babedi ba fisikisi ba moragonyana ba neng ba tla nna botlhokwa mo setšhabeng sa thutatshelo: Niels Bohr le Max Delbrück. Mokgatlho wa Bonasi o ne o akofisa go fuduga ka bonako ga ditalente tsa saense go tswa kwa Jeremane, mme Muller o ne a le kgatlhanong thata le dipolotiki tsa Bososialise jwa Bosetšhaba. FBI e ne e batlisisa Muller ka ntlha ya go nna le seabe ga gagwe mo The Spark, ka jalo o ne a tlhopha go na le moo go ya kwa Soviet Union (tikologo e e neng e tshwanela botoka ditumelo tsa gagwe tsa sepolotiki). Ka 1933, Muller le mosadi wa gagwe ba ne ba letlana, mme ene le morwa wa bone e bong David E. Muller ba ne ba fudugela kwa Leningrad le Hermann. Fa a le koo, kwa Setheong sa Dijini, o ne a reka didirisiwa tsa motheo tsa laboratori ya Drosophila—go akaretsa le dintshi—mme a tlhoma lebenkele. Setheo seno se ne sa fudusediwa kwa Moscow ka 1934, mme Muller le mosadi wa gagwe ba ne ba tlhalana ka 1935.[21]

Kwa USSR, Muller o ne a okametse laboratori e kgolo e e nang le matswela, mme a rulaganya tiro ya dijini tsa kalafi. Bontsi jwa tiro ya gagwe e ne e akaretsa go batlisisa go ya pele ka dijini le marang. Koo o ne a wetsa buka ya gagwe ya thuto ya go oketsa batho, Out of the Night, e dikgopolo tsa yone tse dikgolo di neng di simolotse ka 1910.[22]Lefa go ntse jalo, ka 1936, melao ya ga Joseph Stalin e e gatelelang le go tlhagelela ga Bo-Lysenko di ne di dira gore USSR e nne lefelo le le nang le mathata a a oketsegileng la go nna le go bereka. Muller le bontsi jwa setšhaba sa dijini sa kwa Russia ba ne ba dira se ba ka se[23] kgonang go ganetsa Trofim Lysenko le kgopolo ya gagwe ya thutotlhagelelo ya ga Larmarck, mme Muller o ne a patelesega go tswa mo Soviet Union ka bonako morago ga gore Stalin a bale thanolo ya buka ya gagwe ya dijini mme o ne a "sa itumelele yone, mme...a laela gore go tlhaselwe kgatlhanong le seno." bo sa nneng teng. Dikgang tsa ditsheko tsa ga Lysenko di ne di gorogile kwa United States, mme morwawe David o ne a godisiwa koo, morago ga tlhalo ya gagwe.[24] Mo kgoeletsong ya semmuso ya Setheo, go tlhomamisa ga ditshedi go ne ga ganwa: "Tlhabololo ya setšhaba ga e laolwe ke melao ya ditshedi mme e laolwa ke melao e e kwa godimo ya loago. Maiteko a go anamisa mo bathong melao ya bogosi jwa diphologolo ke maiteko a go isa motho kwa tlase go ya kwa maemong a dibatana."[25]

Muller, yo o nang le mefuta e ka nna 250 ya Drosophila, o ne a fudugela kwa Yunibesithing ya Edinburgh ka Lwetse 1937, morago ga go nna ka nakwana kwa Madrid le kwa Paris. Ka 1938, fa ntwa e ne e le gaufi, o ne a simolola go batla tiro ya leruri kwa morago kwa United States. Gape o ne a simolola go ratana le Dorothea "Thea" Kantorowicz, motshabi wa Mojeremane; ba ne ba nyalana ka May 1939. Khonkerese ya Bosupa ya Boditšhabatšhaba ya Dijini e ne ya tshwarelwa kwa Edinburgh moragonyana mo ngwageng oo; Muller o kwadile "Geneticists' Manifesto"[24] fa a araba potso e e reng: "Palo ya batho ba lefatshe e ka tokafadiwa jang ka tsela e e nang le matswela thata ka dijini?" O ne gape a tsenelela mo kganetsanong le gadfly e e sa feleng ya dijini Richard Goldschmidt ka ga go nna teng ga jini, e go neng go se na bosupi jo bo tlhamaletseng jwa yone ka nako eo.[26]

Tiro ya moragonyana

Ntlo ya ga Muller kwa Bloomington, kwa Indiana

Fa Muller a boela kwa United States ka 1940, o ne a tsaya tiro ya patlisiso e e neng e sa duelwe kwa Kholetšheng ya Amherst, mo lephateng la ga Otto C. Glaser. Fa U.S. e sena go tsena mo Ntweng ya Lefatshe II, maemo a gagwe a ne a atolosiwa ka bosakhutleng mme a atolosiwa go akaretsa le go ruta. Tiro ya gagwe ya Drosophila mo pakeng eno e ne e tlhomile mogopolo mo go lekanyeng selekanyo sa diphetogo tse di itiragalelang fela (go farologana le tse di bakiwang ke marang). Seelo sa kgatiso ya ga Muller se ne sa fokotsega thata mo pakeng eno, go tswa mo kopanong ya go tlhoka badiri ba laboratori le diporojeke tse di gwetlhang tsa go dira diteko. Le fa go ntse jalo, gape o ne a dira jaaka mogakolodi mo Porojekeng ya Manhattan (le fa gone a ne a sa itse gore ke sone seo), mmogo le go ithuta ka ditlamorago tsa go fetoga ga dijini tsa radara. Go tlhomiwa ga ga Muller go ne ga khutla morago ga ngwaga wa dithuto wa 1944–1945, mme le fa go ne go na le mathata a a neng a bakilwe ke ditiro tsa gagwe tsa sepolotiki tsa bososialise, o ne a bona maemo a go nna moporofesara wa thutodiphologolo kwa Yunibesithing ya Indiana.[27] Fano, o ne a nna mo ntlong ya Tsosoloso ya Bokoloniale ya Madatšhe mo tikologong ya Vinegar Hill ya Bloomington.[28]

Ka 1946, Muller o ne a newa Mokgele wa Nobel wa Fisioloji kgotsa Kalafi, "ka ntlha ya go ribolola gore diphetogo tsa dijini di ka tlhotlhelediwa ke marang a X". Dijini, mme bogolo jang tlholego ya mmele le ya mmele ya jini, e ne e nna kgang e e botlhokwa mo thutatshelong, mme phetogo ya dijini ka X-ray e ne e le selotlolo sa kgatelopele e ntsi ya bosheng, gareng ga tsone tiro ya ga George Beadle le Edward Tatum ka ga Neurospora e e neng ya tlhoma ka 1941 kgopolo ya gore jini e le nngwe ke enzyme e le nngwe28. Mo thutong ya ga Muller ya Mokgele wa Nobel, o ne a bolela gore ga go na selekanyo sepe sa marang se se neng se sa tlhagise diphetogo tsa ditshedi, se se neng sa dira gore go amogelwe mokgwa wa marang o o sa lekanyediwang mo dikotsing tsa kankere.[29]

Mokgele wa Nobel, morago ga go thunya ga dibomo tsa atomo kwa Hiroshima le Nagasaki, o ne wa tsepamisa tlhokomelo ya setšhaba mo kgannyeng e Muller a neng a ntse a e phasalatsa dingwaga di le masome a mabedi - dikotsi tsa marang. Ka 1952, go wa ga nuklea go ne ga nna kgang ya batho botlhe; fa e sa le ka Tiro ya Kgabaganyo ya Ditsela, go ntse go oketsega e bosupi bo ne bo ntse bo dutla ka bolwetse jwa marang le loso lo lo bakiwang ke go dira diteko tsa nuklea. Muller le baitsesaense ba bangwe ba le bantsi ba ne ba dira ditiro tse di farologaneng tsa sepolotiki go fokotsa matshosetsi a ntwa ya nuklea. Ka kganetsano ya go wa ga Castle Bravo ka 1954, kgang eno e ne ya potlakela le go feta. dibetsa.[30][31]E ne e le mosaeni (le borasaense ba bangwe ba le bantsi) wa boikuelo jwa 1958 jo bo yang kwa Ditšhabeng tse di Kopaneng, jo bo neng bo kopa gore go fedisiwe diteko tsa dibetsa tsa nyutlea, tse di neng tsa simololwa ke mokhemisi yo o fentseng Mokgele wa Nobel Linus Pauling.[32]

Dikakanyo tsa ga Muller ka ga ditlamorago tsa marang mo phetogong ya ditshedi di ne tsa dirisiwa ke Rachel Carson mo bukeng ya gagwe ya Silent Spring,[33]le fa go ntse jalo, dikakanyo tsa gagwe di ile tsa kgalwa ke baitsesaense bangwe; moitseanape wa dijini James F. Crow o ne a bitsa pono ya ga Muller a re ke "e e tshosang" mme a kwala gore e ne ya dira gore batho ba nne le "poifo e e sa utlwaleng ya marang a a kwa tlase fa e bapisiwa le dikotsi tse dingwe".[34]Go ile ga ngangisanwa ka gore kgopolo ya ga Muller e ne e sa tshegediwe ke dithutopatlisiso ka ga bafalodi ba dibomo tsa athomo, kgotsa ke dipatlisiso mo dipebeng,[35] le gore o ne a itlhokomolosa patlisiso e nngwe e e neng e ganetsana le sekao sa linear no-threshold se a neng a se tshegetsa, ka jalo a ama go tlhamiwa ga pholisi e e neng e rata sekao seno.[36]O ne gape a latofadiwa ka go gatelela maikutlo a a ganetsanang, le gore Komiti ya Sekolo sa Bosetšhaba sa Disaense sa Amerika e a neng a le karolo ya yone e ne ya tlhagisa rekoto ya patlisiso ka tsela e e sa siamang go netefatsa gore o tswelela go newa madi le go nonotsha tlhotlheletso ya gagwe mo pholising ya boitekanelo ya Amerika.[37]

Muller o ne a tlhophiwa go nna leloko la Sekolo sa Botsweretshi le Disaense sa Amerika ka 1942 le Mokgatlho wa Filosofi wa Amerika ka 1947[38][39]Muller o ne a newa Metlele ya Darwin-Wallace ya Mokgatlho wa Linnean wa London ka 1958 le Sekgele sa Dijini sa Kimber sa Sekolo sa Bosetšhaba sa Saense sa U.S. 1955. [40][41]O ne a direla jaaka mopresidente wa Mokgatlho wa Botho wa Amerika go tloga ka 1956 go fitlha ka 1958.[42] Mokgatlho wa Dipalo wa Amerika o ne wa mo tlhopha go nna Motlhatlheledi wa one wa Gibbs ka 1958.[43]O ne a rola tiro ka 1964.[44]Diyuniti tsa motheo tsa boswa tsa Drosophila, matsogo a tsona a dikhoromosome, di bidiwa "dielemente tsa Muller" go tlotla Muller.[44] O tlhokafetse ka 1967.

H. J. Muller le mokwadi wa ditlhamane tsa saense Ursula K. Le Guin e ne e le ditsala tsa ntlha fa ba kile ba tlosiwa; rraagwe (Hermann J. Muller Sr.) le mmaagwe rraagwe (Johanna Muller Kroeber) e ne e le bana ba motho, bana ba ga Nicholas Müller, yo o neng a fudugela kwa United States ka 1848, mme ka nako eo a tlosa umlaut mo leineng la gagwe. Motsala yo mongwe e ne e le Herbert J. Muller, yo rraagwemogolo Otto e neng e le morwa yo mongwe wa ga Nicholas le ngwana wa kwa gae Hermann yo Mogolo le Johanna.[45]

Boswa

Mo athikeleng ya bosheng ya go leba kwa morago ka ga seabe sa ga Muller, James Haber[46] o kwadile jaana:

Moitseanape wa dijini tsa Drosophila, e bong Hermann Muller, o ne a akanya ka melaometheo ya konokono e molekhule o o ntseng jalo o tshwanetseng go nna le yone: go kgona go ikopanya ka boyone le go kgona go fetoga mme morago ga moo o bo o tlhomame gape. O ne a latela tlhatlhobo ya gagwe ya prescient ya dipharologantsho tseno ka ponelopele e e gakgamatsang: go ithuta ka sedirisiwa se se tsewang ka boswa le dipharologantsho tsa sone go ne go ka se tle ka go ithuta Drosophila, mme go ne go tla tla ka go ithuta dibakateria le di-bacteriophage tsa tsone.

Pholisi ya lefatshe lotlhe

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]

E ne e le mongwe wa ba ba saenileng tumalano ya go bitsa kopano ya go kwala molaotheo wa lefatshe.[47] [48]Ka ntlha ya seo, lekgetlo la ntlha mo hisitoring ya batho, Kokoano ya Lefatshe Lotlhe ya Molaotheo e ne ya kopana go kwala le go amogela Molaotheo wa Kopano ya Lefatshe.[49]

Botshelo jwa motho ka namana

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]

Muller o ne a na le morwadi, Helen J. Muller, yo jaanong e leng moporofesa yo o tlogetseng tiro kwa sekolong se segolwane ya New Mexico, yo o nang le morwadi, Mala Htun, yo le ene e leng moporofesa kwa sekolong se segolwane ya New Mexico. Morwawe e bong David E. Muller, yo e neng e le moporofesa yo o tlogetseng tiro wa dipalo le saense ya dikhomphiutha kwa Yunibesithing ya Illinois le kwa Yunibesithing ya Naga ya New Mexico, o ne a tlhokafala ka 2008 kwa Las Cruces, kwa New Mexico. Mmaagwe David e ne e le Jessie Jacobs Muller Offermann (1890–1954), mosadi wa ntlha wa ga Hermann. Mmaagwe Helen e ne e le Dorothea Kantorowicz Muller (1909–1986), mosadi wa bobedi wa ga Hermann, yo o neng a tla kwa U.S. ka 1940 e le motshabi wa Mojuta wa Jeremane.[50] O ne a ratana le Milly Bennett ka nakwana.[51]

Metswedi

[fetola | Fetola Motswedi]
  1. ↑ Pontecorvo, G. (1968). "Hermann Joseph Muller. 1890-1967". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 14: 348–389. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1968.0015. S2CID 61317945.
  2. ↑ Carlson, Elof Axel (1981). Genes, radiation, and society: the life and work of H. J. Muller. Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-1304-9.
  3. ↑ Elof Axel Carlson (2009). "Hermann Joseph Muller 1890–1967" (PDF). National Academy of Sciences.
  4. ↑ Elof Axel Carlson (2009). "Hermann Joseph Muller 1890–1967" (PDF). National Academy of Sciences.
  5. ↑ "Hermann J. Muller – Biographical". NobelPrice.org.
  6. ↑ Elof Axel Carlson (2009). "Hermann Joseph Muller 1890–1967" (PDF). National Academy of Sciences.
  7. ↑ "A Biographical Memoir" (PDF). nasonline.org.
  8. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 17–37
  9. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 37–69
  10. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 70–90; for more on the culture and norms of the fly lab, see .
  11. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 91–108
  12. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 109–119
  13. ↑ Hamilton, Vivien (2016). "The Secrets of Life: Historian Luis Campos resurrects radium's role in early genetics research". Distillations. 2 (2): 44–45. Retrieved March 22, 2018.
  14. ↑ Pontecorvo, G. (December 1968). "Hermann Joseph Muller". Annual Review of Genetics. 2 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1146/annurev.ge.02.120168.000245. ISSN 0066-4197. Retrieved March 9, 2023.
  15. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 120–140
  16. ↑ "The Eugenics Crusade What's Wrong with Perfect?". PBS. October 16, 2018. Retrieved November 4, 2018. There is no scientific basis for the conclusion that the socially lower class have genetically inferior intellectual equipment. Certain slum districts of our cities are factories for criminality among those who happen to be born in them. Under these circumstances, it is society, not the individual, which is the real criminal and which stands to be judged. Eugenics might yet perfect the human race, but only in a society consciously organized for the common good.
  17. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 141–164
  18. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 141–164
  19. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 141–164
  20. ↑ Hardin, Garrett. Nature and Man's Fate, pp.228-229, Rinehart & Company, Inc., New York, Toronto
  21. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 184–203
  22. ↑ H. J. Muller, Out of the Night: A Biologist's View of the Future (New York: Vangard, 1935), p. v.
  23. ↑ H. J. Muller, Out of the Night: A Biologist's View of the Future (New York: Vangard, 1935), p. v.
  24. ↑ H. J. Muller, Out of the Night: A Biologist's View of the Future (New York: Vangard, 1935), p. v.
  25. ↑ Hardin, Garrett. Nature and Man's Fate, pp.217, Rinehart & Company, Inc., New York, Toronto
  26. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 235–273
  27. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 274–288
  28. ↑ Indiana Historic Sites and Structures Inventory. City of Bloomington Interim Report. Bloomington: City of Bloomington, 2004-04, 90.
  29. ↑ Calabrese, E. J. (June 30, 2011). "Muller's Nobel lecture on dose–response for ionizing radiation:ideology or science?" (PDF). Archives of Toxicology. 85 (4): 1495–1498. Bibcode:2011ArTox..85.1495C. doi:10.1007/s00204-011-0728-8. PMID 21717110. S2CID 4708210. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 2, 2017. Retrieved December 30, 2011.
  30. ↑ John Bellamy Foster (2009). The Ecological Revolution: Making Peace with the Planet, Monthly Review Press, New York, pp. 71–72.
  31. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 336–379.
  32. ↑ John Bellamy Foster (2009). The Ecological Revolution: Making Peace with the Planet, Monthly Review Press, New York, pp. 71–72.
  33. ↑ Carson, Rachel Louise (1962). Silent spring. Penguin Books. pp. 209, 211, 279. ISBN 978-0-14-118494-4. OCLC 934630161
  34. ↑ James F. Crow (1987). "Muller, Dobzhansky, and Overdominance". Journal of the History of Biology. 20 (3): 351–380. doi:10.1007/bf00139460. S2CID 83821609.
  35. ↑ "Les leçons inattendues d'Hiroshima / Afis Science - Association française pour l'information scientifique". Afis Science - Association française pour l’information scientifique. Retrieved January 15, 2024.
  36. ↑ Calabrese, E. J. (June 30, 2011). "Muller's Nobel lecture on dose–response for ionizing radiation:ideology or science?" (PDF). Archives of Toxicology. 85 (4): 1495–1498. Bibcode:2011ArTox..85.1495C. doi:10.1007/s00204-011-0728-8. PMID 21717110. S2CID 4708210. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 2, 2017. Retrieved December 30, 2011.
  37. ↑ Calabrese, Edward J.; Giordano, James; Shamoun, Dima Yazji (January 15, 2025). "Professional improbity: How Hermann J. Muller's ethics affected his science". J Occup Environ Hyg. 15: 1–13. doi:10.1080/15459624.2025.2449937. PMID 39812576.
  38. ↑ "Hermann Joseph Muller". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. February 9, 2023. Retrieved March 14, 2023.
  39. ↑ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved March 14, 2023.
  40. ↑ "Hermann Muller". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved March 14, 2023.
  41. ↑ "Kimber Genetics Award". National Academy of Sciences.
  42. ↑ "Past AHA Presidents". American Humanist Association. July 16, 2023.
  43. ↑ Muller, H. J. (1958). "Evolution by mutation". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 64 (4): 137–160. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1958-10191-3. MR 0095766.
  44. ↑ "Hermann Muller and Mutations in Drosophila". U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Scientific and Technical Information. Archived from the original on February 2, 2015.
  45. ↑ Carlson, Genes, Radiation, and Society, pp. 10–11
  46. ↑ Haber, J. E. (2023). "101 years ago: Hermann Muller's remarkable insight". Genetics. 223 (4): iyad015. doi:10.1093/genetics/iyad015. PMC 10078901. PMID 36843148.
  47. ↑ "Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961". Helen Keller Archive. American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved July 1, 2023.
  48. ↑ "Letter from World Constitution Coordinating Committee to Helen, enclosing current materials". Helen Keller Archive. American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved July 3, 2023.
  49. ↑ "Preparing earth constitution | Global Strategies & Solutions | The Encyclopedia of World Problems". The Encyclopedia of World Problems | Union of International Associations (UIA). Retrieved July 15, 2023.
  50. ↑ Elof Axel Carlson (2009). "Hermann Joseph Muller 1890–1967" (PDF). National Academy of Sciences.
  51. ↑ Kirschenbaum, Lisa A. (2015). International Communism and the Spanish Civil War. Cambridge University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-107-10627-7. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
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