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Kganyaolo ya kwa Rwanda

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Kganyaolo ya kwa Rwanda, e e itsegeng gape e le kganyaolo kgatlhanong le batho ba Tutsi, e diragetse ka Moranang a le malatsi a supa go tsena ka Phukwi a le lesome le borobabongwe ngwaga wa 1994 ka nako ya ntwa ya selegae ya Rwanda.[1] Mo lobakeng lwa malatsi a le lekgolo, maloko a morafe wa Tutsi, le ba bangwe ba merafe ya Hutu le Twa ba ne ba bolawa ke masole a Hutu. Fa molaomotheo wa Rwanda o supa gore batho ba feta sedikadike babolailwe, dikakanyetso tsa baithuti di supa fa batho ba ka nna dikete di le makgolo a matlhano le dikete di le makgolo a marataro, masome a marataro le bobedi ba morafe wa Tutsi batlhokafetse, bontsi e le banna.[2][3][4]Kganyaolo e e ne ya diragala ka pogiso e e feteletseng, batswasetlhabelo gantsi ba bolawa ke ba ba mabapi le bone, le tiriso dikgoka mo tlhakanelong dikobo mo go neng go aname, ka basadi ba ka nna dikete tse di makgolo mabedi, masome a matlhano go tsena kwa diketeng di le makgolo a matlhano ba dirisitswe dikgoka mo tlhakanelong dikobo.[5][6]

Kganyaolo e e ne e le ka ntlha ya dikgogakgogano tsa merafe tse di tswang kgakala, go tswa mo phetogong ya Rwanda Hutu go tswa ka 1959 go tsena 1962, mo go neg ga baka batho ba Rwanda ba morafe wa Tutsi gore ba tshabele kwa Uganda ka ntlha ya pogisego ya semorafe e e neng e diragetse. Dintwa di ne tsa gakadiwa ke ntwa ya selegae ya Rwanda e e simologileng ka ngwaga wa 1990 fa phathi ya polotiki ya Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) setlhopha se se neng se tletse ditsuolodi tsa Tutsi se ne se tlhasela Rwanda go tswa kwa Uganda. Ntwa e ne ya fela ka kagiso ka ngwaga wa 1993. Le fa go ntse jalo, polao ya ga tautona Juvenal habyarimana ka Moranang a le malatsi a marataro ngwagawa 1994 ene ya tsosolosa kganyaolo, ka batho ba Hutu ba bafeteletsang dilo ba ne ba dirisa nonofo e e seng ya sepe go lebagana le baeteledipele ba Tutsi le ba se kae ba Hutu.[7]

Le ntswa kganyaolo e e diragetse ka bokete, mafatshefatshe a ne a retelelwa ke go emisa dipolao tse.[8] Phathi ya RPF e ne ya tseledisa ditiro tsa sesole go tsibogela kganyaolo, ba felela ba fenya masole a puso ba fedisa kganyaolo ka go gapa dikgaolo tsotlhe tse di neng di laolwa ke puso. Se se ne sa baka go tshaba ga batho ba ba neng ba ganyaola le batho ba morafe wa Hutu go ya Zaire (kwa jaanong e leng Democratic Republic of the Congo), se sa baka go tlhoka go itshetlela ga kgaolo le go baka ntwa ya ntlha ya Congo ka ngwaga wa 1996.

Serodumo sa kganyaolo se santse se le maleba kwa Rwanda. Lefatshe leo le tlhomile malatsi a boitapoloso go ipelela tiragalo le go fetisa melao e e dirang kganyaolo tlolo molao le go kgaoganya batho.[9][10]

Tse di diragetseng pele

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Banni ba pele ba kwa e le Rwanda gompieno ke ba morafe wa Twa, setlhopha sa batho ba bakhutshwane ka lotso ba e neng e le batsomi ebile e le baphuthi ba ba thibeletseng kwa lefelong leo dingwaga di le sekete se ferabobedi le dikete tse tharo, ba ntse ba teng kwa Rwanda gompieno.[11][12] Gareng ga dingwaga di le makgolo a supa le sekete le makgolo a matlhano morago ga loso lwa ga Keresete, palo ya ditlhopha tsa batho ba merafe ya Bantu ba ne ba fudugela kwa Rwanda, ba simolola go tlhagola sekgwa go dira masimo.[12][13] Baitseanape ba ditso ba na le dikakanyetso di le dintsi ka phudugo ya batho ba merafe ya Bantu: kakanyetso ya ntlha ke gore bathibeledi ba ntlha ke ba morafe wa Hutu, mme ba Tutsi ba ne ba thibelela morago ba tlhama setlhopha sa morafe wa Cushit.[14] Kakanyo e nngwe ke gore phudugo e ne e le bonya ebile e itshetletse go tswa mo dikgaolong tse di mabapi, ka ditlhopha tse di neng di goroga di tshwana ka tshika le tse di ntseng di le teng,[15] le gore bane ba kopana le bone go na le go ba fenya.[12] Ka kakanyo e, pharologanyo ya merafe ya Hutu le Tutsi e tsile morago ebile e ne e se ya semorafe, mme e le ya maemo, mo batho ba morafe wa Tutsi ba neng ba disa dikgomo fa ba Hutu ba lema ditshimo. Batho ba merafe ya Tutsi, Hutu le Twa ba Rwanda ba bua puo e le nngwe, botlhe fa ba kopane ba bidiwa Banyarwanda.[12]

Segopotso sa kganyaolo ya kwa Rwanda kwa Geneva, Switzerland

Batho ba ne ba kopane, pele ka ditso,[13] mme morago ka 1700 ba kgaogana go nna magosi a robabobedi.[13] Bogosi jwa Rwanda jo bo neng bo laolwa ke ba morafe wa Tutsi wa lotso lwa Nyiginya, ba ne ba nna bogosi jo bo kwa godimo go tswa ka lekgolo la dingwaga di le lesome le borobabobedi,[13] ba ne ba gola ka go gapa batho ba ba tsenya mmo setshabeng, ba bo ba fitlhelela setlhoa ka fa tlase ga puso ya ga Kgosi Kigeli rwabugiri ka ngwaga wa 1853 go tsena 1895. Rwabugiri o ne a godisa bogosi kwa bophirima le kwa bokone,[12][13] a dira diphetogo tsa tsamaiso mo go neng ga baka kgotlhang gareng batho ba Hutu le ba Tutsi. Diphetogo tse di ne di akaretsa uburetwa, e leng tsela ya go pateletsa batho go bereka e batho ba Hutu ba neng ba go dira gore ba bone lefatshe le le neng le tserwe mo go bone,[16] le ubuhake, e ka yone batho ba Tutsi ba neng ba neela bareki ba Tutsi le Hutu dikgomo gore ba ba berekela kgotsa ba bone itsholelo e e botoka.[14] Le ntswa batho ba Hutu le Tutsi ba ne ba tshwarwa ka mo go farologaneng, ba ne ba bua puo e le nngwe, le ngwao ya bone e tshwana, maina a ditso tsa bone a tshwana, dikao tsa losika di ne di ba kopanya.[17]

Lefatshe la Rwanda le le le bapileng le lolne la Burundi a ne a neelwa Germany kwa bokopanong jwa Berlin jwa 1884,[18] lefatshe la Germany le ne la supa boleng teng jwa lone kwa lefatsheng leo ka ngwaga wa 1897 ka go aga botsalano le kgosi.[19] Molao wa Germany e ne e le go etelela pele leaftshe ka bogosi jwa Rwanda; tsamaiso e e ne e siame ka e ne e letla bokolone ka palo potlana ya mephato ya sesole sa kwa Europe.[14] Ba ba dirang bokolone ba Germany ba ne ba rata batho ba morafe wa tutsi go na le ba Hutu fa ba tlhopha maemo a tsamaiso, ba dumela fa e le batswakwa ba Ethiopia ka jalo ba le kwa godimo ka lotso.[20] Kgosi wa Rwanda o ne a amogela ma Jeremane a dirisa nonofo ya bone ya sesole go oketsa puso ya gagwe. Masole a Belgium a ne a tsaya taolo ya Rwanda le Burundi ka ntwa ya ntlha ya mafatshe ka ngwaga wa 1917, [14]mme ka ngwaga wa wa 1926 ba simolola molao wa bokolone.[14][13] Batho ba Belgium ba ne ba ntšhafatsa itsholelo ya Rwanda, mme batho ba Tutsi ba ne ba tswelela ba etelela pele, ba tlogela ba morafe wa Hutu ba se na ditshwanelo dipe.[14]

Ka dingwaga tsa 1930 di simologa, lefatshe la Belgium le ne la simolola kgaogano ya sennela ruri ya batho ka go kaoganya batho ba Rwanda ka merafe, ba morafe wa Hutu ba le masome a robabobedi le bone mo lekgolong la batho, ba Tutsi ba le lesome le botlhano mo lekgolong, fa ba Twa ba ne ba le bongwe mo lekgolong. Dikarata tsa tshupo gore o mang di ne tsa neelwa batho di supa (ka fa tlase ga setlhogo sa morafe le lotso) gore motho mongwe le mongwe a ke wa morafe wa Tutsi kgotsa Hutu kgotsa Twa kgotsa ke o o amogetseng boagedi. Fa go en go kile ga kgonagala gore bahumi bangwe ba morafe wa Hutu ba nne batho ba Tutsi ba ba tlotlegang, dikarata tsa tshupo di ne tsa iletsa go kgabaganya morafe mo gareng ga ditlhopha tseo, tsa bo tsa dira gore ditlhopha[21] tse di neng di amana ka tsa itsholelo di nne ditlhopha tse di tsepameng tsa ditso.[22]

Ditso tsa batho ba Hutu le Tutsi di ne tsa agiwa sešha ke ba ba neng ba dira lefatshe leo kolone.[17] barongwa ba BaKeresete kwa rwanda ba ne ba rotloetsa kakanyo ya kgaogano ya tshimologo ya bogosi boo, ba bo ba supa dipopego tsa Ethiopia mo bathong ba Tutsi, ka jalo e le batswakwa.[17][23] Dikakanyetso tse di bopa kgomo ya mmopa ya go sa eme le batho ba morafe wa Tutsi ka ngwaga wa 1994.[17] Kakanyetso ya Tutsi ya re kgosi wa pele Kanyarwanda o ne a na le bana ba basimane ba le bantsi, ba akaretsa Gatutsi le Gahutu, bagolwagolwane ba Tutsi le Hutu ba ka jalo e leng motho le monnawe. Kakanyets ya Hutu ya re Kigwa (mogolwagolwane wa Ruhanga le mo Tutsi wa ntlha) o o ole mo loaping awela mo lefatsheng le le neng le nna batho ba Hutu.[24]

Phetogo le botsalano jwa Hutu le Tutsi morago ga boipuso

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Morago ga ntwa ya bobedi ya lefatshe, letsholo la go fetoga ga Hutu le ne la simolola go gola kwa Rwanda,[14] le tlhotlhelediwa ke kilo ya phetogo ya dintwa tsa selegae, le kutlwelobotlhoko e e neng e oketsega mo bathong ba Hutu mo kerekeng ya Katoliki.[14] Barongwa ba kereke ya Katoliki ba ne ba ipona e le bone ba leng phoso go nonotsha batho ba ba humanegileng ba Hutu e seng bahumi ba Tutsi, se se baka go tlhamiwa ga babereki le barutegi ba Hutu mo go neng ga baka tekatekano ya tsamaiso ya sepolotiki.[14] Bogosi le batho ba tlhwatlhwa ba Tutsi ba ne ba lemoga thotloetso e e golelang pele ya batho ba Hutu, ba simolola go gwetlha boipuso go ya ka fa ba bo batlang ka teng.[14] Ka ngwaga wa 1957, setlhopha sa baithuti ba Hutu ba ne ba kwala maitlamo wa BaHutu. E e ne e le mokwalo wa ntlha go supa fa batho ba Tutsi le Hutu e le merafe e e sa tshwaneng, wa bo wa kopa go neelwa matla ga batho ba Hutu go tswa kwa go ba Hutsi, se ba neng ab se bitsa molao wa dipalo.[14]

Batho ba Tutsi ba bolailwe ke ba sesole sa Hutu ka Firikgong ngwaga wa 1964.

Ka Ngwanatsele a rogwa, ngwaga wa 1959, Dominique Mbonyumutwa, kgosana ya morafe wa Hutu, o ne a tlhaselwa gautshwane le kwa lolwapeng lwa gagwe kwa Byimana,[19] ke ba ema nokeng ba Tutsi. Mbonyumutwa o ne a falola, mme magatwe a ne a anama a gore o bolailwe.[21] balweladitshwanelo ba Hutu ba ne ba tsiboga ka go bolaya batho ba morafe wa Tutsi, ba maemo le batho fela, se sa simolola phetogo ya Rwanda.[14] Batho ba morafe wa Tutsi ba ne ba tsiboga ka ditlhaselo tsa bone, mme ka nako e batho ba Hutu ba ne ba enngwe nokeng ke batsamaisi ba Belgium ba ba neng ba batla go ntsha ba Tutsi mo setilong.[14][21] Ka dingwaga tsa 1960 di simologa, batho ba Belgium ba ne ba tsaya maemo a bontsi jwa dikgosi tsa Tutsi ba a neela batho ba Hutu, mme ba rulaganya ditlhopho tsa gare ga ngwaga tse di neng tsa itemogela go welesega ga batho ba Hutu ba le bantsi.[14] Kgosi o ne a thankgolwa, ga dirwa lefatshe le le eteletsweng pele ke batho ba morafe wa Hutu, lefatshe la tsaya boipuso ka ngwaga wa 1962. Jaaka phetogo e ne e tswelela pele, batho ba morafe wa Tutsi ba ne ba simola go tswa mo lefatsheng go tshaba go tlosiwa ke batho ba Hutu, ba thibelela mo mafatsheng a mane a a mabapi ebong Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania le Zaire.[12] Go tshaba mo, go ne ga dira gore ba bonwe e le batshabi kwa mafatsheng a ba neng ba gorogela kwa go one,[14] go sa tshwane le Banyarwanda ba baneng ab fudugile ka nako ya bokolone le pele ga bokolone, ba simolola go batla go boela kwa Rwanda ka ponyo ya leitlho.[14] Ba ne ba dira ditlhopha tse di tshotseng dibetsa tse di neng tsa tlhasela Rwanda, ba ne ba retelelwa, mme ba baka polao ya batho ba Tutsi ba le dikete di le lesome, le go tshaba mo go oketsegileng ga batho ba Tutsi.[14] Ka ngwaga wa 1964, batho ba morafe wa Tutsi ba ka nna dikete di le makgolo a mararo ba ne ba tshabile, mme ba patelesega go nna mo botshwareng dingwaga tse di masome mararo tse di latelang.[14]

Gregoire Kayibanda o ne a etelela pele lefatshe la Hutu mo dingwageng di le lesome tse di latelang, a dirisa molao wa kgatelelo o o tshwanang le wa bogosi jwa pele ga phetogo.[14] O ne a thankgolwa ka ngwaga wa 1973, mo go neng ga baya tautona Juvenal Habyarimana mo pusong. Go rata batho ba Hutu le go nna kgatlhanong le ba Tutsi go ne ga tswelela kwa Rwanda, le ntwa tlhaselo ya batho ba Tutsi e ne e wetse tlase ka tsela nngwe.[25] Habyarimana o ne a tlhama letsholo la puso ya batho ka batho le tlhabololo ka ngwaga wa 1975, a dira molaomotheo o mosha ka 1978, a dira lefatshe leo go nna la phathi e nngwefela, mo moagi mongwe le mongwe e neng e le leloko la phathi eo.[26]

Ka banni ba le makgolo a mane le borobabobedi mo khilomithareng e le nngwe, palo ya batho ba Rwanda ke nngwe ya tse di kwa godimo thata mo Aforika. Palo ya batho ba Rwanda e oketsegile go tswa kwa go sedikadike se le sengwe le dikete di le thataro ka ngwaga wa 1934 go ya kwa go didikadike di supa le sekete se le sengwe ka 1989, se se baka go lwela lefatshe. Baitseanape ba ditso jaaka Gerard Prunier ba dumela gore kganyaolo ya 1994 e ka amanngwa le palo e ntsi ya batho ba koo.[14]

Ntwa ya selegae ya Rwanda

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Paul Kagame, moeteledipele wa Rwanda Patrioic Front ka nako ya ntwa ya selegae

Ka dingwaga tsa 1980, setlhopha sa batshabi ba Rwanda ba le makgolo matlhano kwa Uganda, ba eteletswe pele ke Fred Rwigyema ba ne ba lwantsha ditsuolodi tsa National Resistance Army (NRA) kwa ntweng ya sekgwa ya Uganda, kwa go neng ga thankgolwa Milton Obote ke Yoweri Museveni.[27] Masole a a ne a sala mo sesoleng sa Uganda morago ga go tlhomiwa semmuso ga ga Museveni go nna tautona ya lefatshe la Uganda, mme ka nako e le nngwe ga baakanyediwa go tlhasela lefatshe la Rwanda.[28] Ka Phalane ngwaga wa 1990, Rwigyema o ne a etelela pele sesole sa ditsuolodi le dikete di le nne go tswa kwa Uganda, ba tsena mo Rwanda dikhilomithara di le masome a marataro, ka sekao sa Rwanda Patriotic Front.[14] Rwigyema o ne a bolawa ka letsatsi la boraro la tlhaselo, mafatshe a France le Zaire a romela masole go ema nokeng masole a Rwanda, ba kgona go emisa tlhaselo.[14] Mothusa Rwigyema Paul kagame o ne a tsaya taolo ya sesole, a rulaganya go boela morago go fetwa ka Uganda go ya dithabeng tsa vrunga, lefelo le le makgwakgwa kwa bokone jwa Rwanda. Go tswa koo, o ne a baakanya sesole a se neela dibetsa, a dira kgobokanyo ya madi le go thapa sešha mo tikologong ya Tutsi.[14]

Kagame o ne a simolola ntwa gape ka Firikgong ngwaga wa 1991, ka tlhaselo e e makaditseng batho kwa bokone jwa toropo ya Ruhengeri. RPF e ne ya gapa toropo, ka ba nen ba gakgamaditse batho, ba e tshwara letsatsi le le lengwe pele ga ba boela kwa sekgweng. Ngwaga o o latelang, RPF e ne ya dira ntwa ya go tlhasela ba bo ba tshaba, ba gapa melelwane mengwe mme ba sa dire sepe se se kalo mo sesoleng sa Rwanda. Ka Seetebosigo ngwaga wa 1992, morago ga go dira phathi e nngwe fela e e kopantseng tse dingwe kwa Kigali, RPF e ne ya supa fa e digile dibetsa ba simolola go buisana le puso ya Rwanda kwa Arusha Tanzania. Ka ngwaga ya 1993 e simologa, ditlhopha tsa Hutu di ne tsa tlhamiwa tsa simolola go bolotsa matsholo a tlhaselo kgatlhanong le ba Tutsi.RPF e ne ya fetola ka go nama e emisitse dipuisano tsa kagiso ya dira tlhaselo e kgolo, ya fenya lefatshe le letona kwa bokone jwa lefatshe.[14] Dipuisano tsa kagiso le thokgamo di ne tsa tswelela kwa Arusha; ditumalano tse di neng tsa dirwa di ne tsa bewa monwana ka Phatwe ngwaga wa 1993, go fiwa RPF maemo mo pusong e ntsha le mo sesoleng sa lefatshe.[14] Letsholo la United Nations la go thusa Rwanda, le ne la romela setlhopha sa kagiso le thokgamo kwa lefatsheng leome RPF ya neelwa phatlha kwa palamenteng kwa Kigali, go e dirisa fa e tlhoma puso.[29]

Letsholo la go nonotsha Hutu

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Mo dingwageng tsa ntlha tsa puso ya ga Habyarimana, go ne go na le tswelelo pele ya itsholelo le phpkotsego ya dintwa kgatlhanong le batho baorafe wa Tutsi.[14] Bontsi jwa batho ba ba neng ba le kgatlhanong le batho ba Tutsi ba ne ba ntse ba le teng, ba akaretsa lolwapa lwa ga mohumagadi wa ga tautoma ebong Agathe Haryarimana, ba ba neng ba itsege ka akazu kgotsa clan se Madame,[14] le tautona o ne a ikaegile ka bone go tshegetsa puso ya gagwe.[28] Fa RPF e tlhasela ka Phalane ngwaga wa 1990, Habyarimama le batho ba ba kgatlhanong ba ne ba tlhasela letshogo la batho ka go tsweledisa go nna kgatlhanong le morafe wa Tutsi mo go neng ga itsewe jaaka maatla a Tutsi. Batho ba Tutsi ba ne ba lebiwa ka pelaelo, thulaganyo e ne ya dirwa ka Phalane a le lesome le motso ngwaga wa 1990 kwa kgaolong ya Gisenyi, kwa go neng ga bolawa batho ba Tutsi ba le makgolo mararo masome a robabobedi le boraro.[30] Setlhopha sa sesole le maloko a puso ba ne ba simolodisa pampiri ya dikgang e bidiwa Kangura e e neng ya itsege lefatshe lotlhe. Go nna kgatlhanong le batho ba Tutsi mo go kwadilweng go akaretsa melao e e lesome ya Hutu, melawana ya tlhaolele e akaretsa go bitsa batho ba Hutu ba ba nyetseng ba Tutsi batsietsi. Ka ngwaga wa 1992, ba ba kgatlhanong ba ne ba dira bokopano jwa go sireletsa phathi ya tshireletso lefatshe ya Coalition for the Defence of the Republic (CDR), e e neng e amana le phathi e e busang Mme e sokametse kwa mojeng, ebile e rotloetsa lenaane le le neng le kgalela tautona go nna boleta mo bathong ba RPF.[25]

Go dira ntwa ya itsholelo, setho le polotiki gore e lebege e le ya semorafe, ba ba tsamayang le tautona ba akaretsa sesole ba ne ba simolola matsholo a go bola dikgomo tsa mmopa ka mathata a semorafe a a bakilweng ke Tutsi le RPF. Tsamaiso e e ne ya tlhalosiwa e le polotiki ya seipone kgotsa go akela motho mo seiponeng,[31] mo motho a peng motho o dirile sengwe e le se ene a batlang go se dira.[32]

Morago ga tumalano ya 1992 ya go emisa ntwa, palo ya ba ba ratang go tseela dilo kgakala ba puso ya Rwanda le masole ba ne ba simolola go logela tautona segole, ba tshwenyegile ka kgonagalo ya go tsenya batho ba Tutsi mo pusong.[14] Habyarimana o ne a leka go ntsha batho ba ba ratang go dira dilo tse di thata mo maemong a a kwa godimo a sesole, mme o ne a kgona bontlha bongwe fela, ba ba berekisanang le akazu ebong Augustin Ndindiliyimana le Theoneste Bagosora ba ne ba sala mo maemong a a kwa godimo, ba tlogelela lolwapa lwa ba ba ratang go dira dilo tse di thata kamano ya nonofo. Mo ngwageng wa 1992 otlhe, batho ba ba ratang go dira dilo thata ba ne ba dira matsholo a go bolaya batho ba Tutsi, mo go neng ga ya magoletsa ka Firikgong ngwaga wa 1993, mo batho ba Hutu ba neng ba bolaya batho ba le makgolo a mararo. Fa ba RPF ba tsweledisa dintwa ka Tlhakole ngwaga wa 1993, ba ne ba supa fa dipolao tse e le tsone di gwetlhileng tlhaselo e, mme ditlamorago tsa yone e ne e le go oketsa kemo nokeng ya batho ba ba ratang go dira dilo tse di thata mo morafeng wa Hutu.

Go tswa ka ngwaga wa 1993 o le fa gare, letsholo la go nonotsha morafe wa Hutu le ne le emetse maatla a boraro mo polotiking ya Rwanda, fa godimo ga puso ya ga Habryarimana le ba ba kgathlanong ba se kae. Kwa ntle ga CDR, go ne go sena phathi e nngwe e e neng e le bontlha jwa letsholo le.

Metswedi

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  1. ↑ Barnett, Michael (2015). Eyewitness to a Genocide: The United Nations and Rwanda (Afterword ed.). Cornell University Press. pp. 1, 15, 131–132. ISBN 978-0-8014-3883-7.
  2. ↑ Reydams, Luc (2020). "'More than a million': the politics of accounting for the dead of the Rwandan genocide". Review of African Political Economy. 48 (168): 235–256. doi:10.1080/03056244.2020.1796320. S2CID 225356374. The government eventually settled on 'more than a million', a claim which few outside Rwanda have taken seriously.
  3. ↑ Guichaoua, André (2 January 2020). "Counting the Rwandan Victims of War and Genocide: Concluding Reflections". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 125–141. doi:10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 213471539. Archived from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2025.
  4. ↑ McGreal, Chris (29 March 2004). "'It's so difficult to live with what we know'". The Guardian. ISSN 1756-3224.
  5. ↑ Prunier, Gérard (1995). The Rwanda Crisis, 1959–1994: History of a Genocide (1st ed.). London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1850652434.
  6. ↑ Nowrojee, Binaifer (1996). Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence during the Rwandan Genocide and its Aftermath. New York: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 978-1-56432-208-1. Archived from the original on 18 December 2016. Retrieved 10 July 2025.
  7. ↑ Sullivan, Ronald (7 April 1994). "Juvenal Habyarimana, 57, Ruled Rwanda for 21 Years". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 13 June 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2025
  8. ↑ "Ignoring Genocide (HRW Report – Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda, March 1999)". www.hrw.org. Archived from the original on 28 October 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2025.
  9. ↑ Sullo, Pietro (2018). "Writing History Through Criminal Law: State-Sponsored Memory in Rwanda". The Palgrave Handbook of State-Sponsored History After 1945. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 69–85. ISBN 978-1-349-95306-6.
  10. ↑ Yakaré-Oulé, Jansen (11 April 2014). "Denying Genocide or Denying Free Speech? A Case Study of the Application of Rwanda's Genocide Denial Laws". Northwestern Journal of Human Rights. 12 (2): 192. Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2025.
  11. ↑ Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (2003). The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-1-890951-34-4. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2025.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Mamdani, Mahmood (2002). When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-10280-1. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2025.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (2003). The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-1-890951-34-4. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2025.
  14. ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 14.16 14.17 14.18 14.19 14.20 14.21 14.22 14.23 14.24 14.25 14.26 14.27 Prunier, Gérard (1999). The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (2nd ed.). Kampala: Fountain Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-9970-02-089-8. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2025
  15. ↑ Luis, J. R.; et al. (2004). "The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations". American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (3): 532–44. doi:10.1086/382286. PMC 1182266. PMID 14973781.
  16. ↑ Pottier, Johan (2002). Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5215-2873-3. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 15 July 2025.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Samuel Totten; William S. Parsons (2009). Century of Genocide, Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. New York: RoutledgeFalmer. p. 421. ISBN 978-0-415-99085-1.
  18. ↑ Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 (Illustrated ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2025.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Carney, J.J. (2013). Rwanda Before the Genocide: Catholic Politics and Ethnic Discourse in the Late Colonial Era. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199982288. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2025.
  20. ↑ Bruce D. Jones, Peacemaking, S. 17 f; Carsten Heeger, Die Erfindung, S. 23–25.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Gourevitch, Philip (2000). We Wish To Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Picador. ISBN 978-0-330-37120-9. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2025.
  22. ↑ Kamusella, Tomasz (19 July 2022). "Ethnicity and Estate: The Galician Jacquerie and the Rwandan Genocide Compared". Nationalities Papers. 50 (4): 684–703. doi:10.1017/nps.2021.12. hdl:10023/23154. S2CID 235573417. Archived from the original on 6 June 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2021 – via Cambridge University Press.
  23. ↑ Linden, Ian (1977). Church and Revolution in Rwanda. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
  24. ↑ Vansina, Jan (1985). Oral tradition as history. Internet Archive. Madison, Wis. : University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-10213-5.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Prunier 1999, pp. 74–76.
  26. ↑ Twagilimana, Aimable (2007). Historical dictionary of Rwanda. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5313-3. OCLC 141852090.
  27. ↑ Kinzer, Stephen (2008). A Thousand Hills: Rwanda's Rebirth and the Man Who Dreamed It. London: Wiley Books. ISBN 978-0-470-12015-6.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Melvern, Linda (2004). Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide. London and New York: Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-588-2.
  29. ↑ Dallaire, Roméo (2005). Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda. London: Arrow Books. ISBN 978-0-09-947893-5. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2025
  30. ↑ Guichaoua, André (2015). From War to Genocide: Criminal Politics in Rwanda, 1990–1994. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0299298203.
  31. ↑ Des Forges, Alison (1999). Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda (Report). New York: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 1-56432-171-1. Archived from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 14 July 2025.
  32. ↑ THE PROSECUTOR VERSUS JEAN-PAUL AKAYESU Case No. ICTR-96-4-T at paras. 99–100
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