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Kgwebo ya makgoba go kgabaganya lewatle le lehibidu

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Kgwebo ya makgoba go kgabaganya lewatle le lehibidu, e gantsi e bidiwang kgwebo ya makgoba ya tumelo ya Islam,[1] kgotsa Kgwebo ya makgoba ya ma Arabea,[1] kgotsa kgwebo ya makgoba ya kwa botlhaba,[1] e ne e le kgwebo ya makgoba e go neng go tsewa batho ba Aforika ka dikgoka go tswa kwa borwa jwa Aforika go kgabaganya lewatle le le hibidu, go ya go nna makgoba kwa Arabian Peninsula le legare la botlhaba go tswa goo lowe go tsena ka legare la dingwaga tse di makgolo a le masome mabedi.

Kgwebo ya makgoba ya lewatle le lehibidu e itsege e le nngwe ya dikgwebo tsa makgoba tse di nnileng ka lobaka mo lefatsheng ka bophara, ka e sale e nna go tswa bogologolong go fitlhelela ka dingwaga tsa 1960, fa bokgoba kwa Saudi Arabia le Yemen bo ne bo fedisiwa.[1] Fa ditsela tse dingwe tsa bokgoba di ne di tswalwa, kgwebo ya bokgoba ya lewatle le lehibidu e ne ya itsegala mo leaftsheng ka bophara e le lefelo la go gweba ka makgoba ka nako ya go fela ga ntwa ya ntlha ya lefatshe go tsena ka tshimologo ya ntwa ya bobedi ya lefatshe. Morago ga ntwa ya bobedi ya lefatshe, kgatelelo ya mafatshe e ne ya dira gore e emisiwe ka dingwaga tse di makgolo mabedi tse di fitileng.

Go gweba ka makgoba ga Aforika

Lewatle le lehibidu, Sahara le lewatle la Indian e ne e le tsone ditsela tsa boremelelo tse makgoba a kwa botlhaba jwa Aforika a neng a isiwa kwa lefatsheng la batho ba Muslim ka tsone.[1][2][3]

Tshedimosetso ya ditso

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Kgwebo ya makgoba go tswa Aforika go ya Arabia go fetiwa ka lewatle le lehibidu, e tswa bogologolong. Le fa pele ga Arabia wa tumelo ya Islam, magolegwa a lotso lwa Arab a ne a tlwaelesegile ka go tswasetlhabelo sa bokgoba, go tsewa ga makgoba go tswa kwa Ethiopia go kgabaganya lewatle le lehibidu le gone go ne go le teng.[4] Kgwebo ya makgoba ya lewatle le lehibidu e supa fa e tswa bogologolong jwa lekgolo lantlha la dingwaga, fa magolegwa a Aforika a ne a tsewa go tswa kwa Aforika, go tlola lewatle le lehibidu go ya Arabia le Yemen.[4]

Ditsela tsa kgwebo ya makgoba tsa bogosi jwa Ethiopia
Ditsela tsa kgwebo ya makgoba tse di ralalang Ethiopia

Ka lekgolo la boferabongwe la dingwaga, makgoba a ne a ntshiwa go tswa kwa lewatleng le lehibidu, go ya Jeddah, Mecca le Medina, ba bo ba tsewa ka caravan go feta sekaka go ya Baghdad le kwa Abbasid Caliphate.[5][6] Kgwebo ya makgoba e ne e ntse e tsweletse dingwaga di le makgolo morago ga foo, ga e ne e lemogwa ke baeti ba kwa bophirima.

Richard Francis Burton o tlhalositse marekisetso a bokgoba kwa Medina ka dingwaga tsa 1850 are:

    • " Marekisetso a kwa Al-Madinah a bokoa ebile ekare makgoba otlhe a tswa kwa Meccah ka batho ba ba noleng thata kgotsa bakgweetsi morago ga go isa ba ba botoka kwa Egypt, toropo e tsaya masalela...bangwe ba makgoba a ba tswa kwa Abyssinia: bontsi bo kgweediwe go tswa kwa lefatsheng la Galla, ba isiwe kwa maemelong a dikepe kwa lotshitshing lwa Somali, Berberah, Tajoura le Zayla. Makgoba a ka nna bontsi jwa dikete tse pedi go tswa kwa Galla le a le dikete tse nne go tswa kwa Zayla, a isiwa kwa Mocha, Jeddah, Suez le Maskat ngwaga le ngwaga...ke tsela e tona e e ruletsweng ka boboa e tletse matlo a kofi. Dithoto di ne di nna mo ditselaneng tse di lebaganeng le mabotana. Basetsana ba bantle thata ba ne ba nna mo ditilong tse di kwa godimo. Kwa tlase e ne e le basimane ba ba kwa tlase ka seemo. Botlhe ba ne ba apesitswe ka mmala o mo pinki le diaparo tse dingwe tse di mebala e e galotseng, ka masire a a lotsatsa mo ditlhogong; mme ba ne ba bonala ba itumetse, go sa itsege fa e le ka ntlha ya go tlhoka go tlwaela seemos e kgotsa go tsibogela go atlega mo mosepeleng wa bone o o makgwakgwa wa tsela le lewatle."[7]

Go ya ka pego ya kwa Britain, makgoba a le makgolo a mararo le masome a mabedi a ne a tsamaisiwa ba kgabaganya lewatle le lehibidu go ya Jeddah ka Motsheganong ngwaga wa 1879.[8]

Dikepe di ne di dirisiwa go tsamaisa dithoto le makgoba

Makgoba a ne a gwantisiwa a bofilwe ka dikeetane go tswa dinokeng tsa bophirima go ya matshitshing a Sudan, Ethiopia le Somalia, ba beilwe ka ditselana ba tlodisiwa lewatle la Indian go ya kwa Aden kgotsa go tlola lewatle le lehibidu go ya Arabia le Aden, ba ba bokoa ba latlhelwa mo lewatleng.[9]

Senepe sa makgoba a le mo sekepeng

Morago ga ntwa ya ntlha ya lefatshe, lotshitshi lo lo kwa botlhaba jwa lewatle le lehibidu le ne la tlhama morafo o o ikemetseng e le bogosi jwa Heja (go tswa ka 1916 go tsena ka 1925). Batho ba Hejaz ba ne ba sa ipone ba patelesega go obamela melao le ditumalano tse di beilweng monwana ke bogosi jwa Ottoman mo go tsa bokgoba le thekiso ya bone. Ka nako ya fa gare ga dintwa tsa mafatshe, bogosi jwa Hejaz bo ne bo itsege mo leafstheng ka kakaretso e le lefelo la go gweba ka makgoba mo kgaolong.

Metswedi le ditsela

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Metswedi e e neng e tlamela kgwebo ya makgoba go kgabaganya lewatle le lehibidu bontsi jwa yone e ne e le mo Aforika. E ne e akaretsa ditsela tse di kgabaganyang lewatle le lehibidu go tswa kwa Aforika, le tsela e e neng e kopana le kgwebo ya makgoba ya lewatle la Indian, kwa makgoba a neng a tlodisiwa teng pele go tsena mo lewatleng le lehibidu go feta Yemen. Bontsi jwa makgoba e ne e le ba Aforika, mme go ne go na le palo e se kae ya ditso tse dingwe jaaka ba Asia.

Botlhaba jwa Aforika

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Botlhaba jwa Aforika bo nnile mostwedi wa makgoba wa Arabian Peninsula ka tsela ya lewatle la Indian fa e sale ka legare la dingwaga. Fa bontsi jwa makgoba a supa a isitswe kwa Arabian Peninsula ba feta ka Oman le Muscat go na le go feta ka lewatle le lehibisu, lewatle le lehibidu e ne e e tsela le yone ya kgwebo ya makgoba gareng ga botlhaba jwa Aforika le Arabian Peninsula. E ne e le tsela gape ya makgoba go ya Egypt.

Ka dingwaga di le makgolo a le lesome le bobedi, Muhammah al-Idrisi o ne a rekisa bana ba Aforika go tswa kwa e leng Kenya gompieno go ya Arabia.[4]

Kgwebo ya makgoba e ne e na le ditsela tsa boremelelo di le pedi go ya Hejaz. Makgoba a Aforika a ne a tswa kwa South Sudan le Ethiopia. Gantsi bana le makgarejwana ba ne ba rekiwa kgotsa ba fiwa e le go supa tlotlo ke batsadi ba bone mo magosing a kwa Ethiopia, ba ba neng ba ba rekisetsa bagwebi ba makgoba.[9] Batsadi ba ne ba bolelelwa gore bana ba bone ba ya go neelwa matshelo a a botoka e le makgoba kwa Arabia.[9] Makgoba a ne a isiwa kwa Arabia ka lotshitshi abo a kgabaganya lewatle le lehibidu go ya Jeddah.[9]

Banna ba meopa, basadi ba dinyatsi le babereki ba banna, e ne e le tsone ditiro tsa makgoba a a eng a tswa kwa Ethiopia go ya Jidda le mafelo a mangwe a Hejaz.[10] Dikgaolo tsa borwa le borwa-bophirima jwa Ethiopia di ne di tlamela ka bontsi jwa basetsana ba baneng ba isiwa kwa India le Arabia.[11] Makgoba abasadi le a banna go tswa kwa Ethiopia e ne e le one boremelelo jwa makgoba go ysa India le legare la botlhaba.[12]

Egypt le Hejaz e ne e le ba ba amogelang basadi ba kwa India ba ba neg ba tlodisiwa go kgabaganya Aden le Goa.[13][14]

Fa e sale lefatshe la Britain le emisa go gweba ka makgoba mo dikoloneng tsa lone, lefatshe la Aden le le neng le busiwa ke Britain ka dingwaga di le makgolo a le lesome le boferabongwe, le ne la seka la tlhola le amogela makgoba, mme makgoba a neng a tswa Ethiopia go ya Arabia a ne a isiwa kwa Hejaz mo boemong.[15]

Lefatshe la India e ne e le motswedi wa makgoba a a neng a ya kwa Arabian Peninsula go tswa goo lowe, le fa e ne e se gantsi jaaka a a tswang kwa Aforika.

Ka lekgolo la dingwaga la lesome le boraro, basimane, basadi le basetsana ba kwa India ba ba neng ba lebanwe ke bokgoba jwa tlhakanelo dikobo, ba ne ba ntshiwa kwa India go ya Arabia le go ya Egypt ba kgabaganya lewatle le lehibidu ba feta ka Aden.[4]

Madagascar le ditlhaketlhake tsa lewatle la Indian

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Makgoba a ne gape a rekisiwa go ya kwa matshitshing a lewatle le lehibidu go tswa kwa Madagascar le ditlhaketlhake tsa lewatle la Indian, jaaka kwa Comorian Archipelago, morago ga bagwebi ba makgoba ba Arab Muslim ga mmogo le ba ba berekisanang le bone ba Swahili, ba ne ba tsaya taolo ya Zanzibar le lotshitshi lwa Shwahili ka makgolo a ferabongwe a dingwaga. Go tswa ka makgolo a ferabongwe a dingwaga go tsena ka makgolo a le lesome le bosupa, palo ya kakanyetso ya dikete tse pedi go tsena ka dikete tse tharo tsa makgoba a botlhaba jwa Aforika le Malagasy a ne a rekisiwa ngwaga le ngwaga go tswa kwa lotshitshing lwa lewatle la Indian go kgabaganya lewatle le lehibisu le dikgaolo tse dingwe tsa Arabia. Ka dingwaga di le makgolo a le lesome le bosupa, palo e e ne e oketsegile go tswa kwa diketeng di le tharo go tsena kwa diketeng di le thataro tsa makgoba a a nenga rekisiwa ngwaga le ngwaga go tswa Madagascar go ya lewatleng le lehibidu ke bagwebi ba e seng ba kwa Europe ba tumelo ya Muslim. (Swahili, Comorian, Arab le Hadrami).[16]

Bangwe baitseanape ba ditso ba ne ba akanyetsa fa ka dingwaga di le makgol a le lesome le bosupa, makgoba a Malagasy a ka nna dikete di le lekgolo le masome a matlhano ane a isiwa go tswa kwa Boeny kwa bokone-bophirima jwa Madagascar go ya kwa lefatsheng la batho ba Muslim le akaretsa lotshitshi lwa lewatle le lehibidu (Jeddah), Hejaz(Mecca), Arabia(Aden), Oman(Muscat), Zanzibar, Kilwa, Lamu, Somalia(Barawa) gongwe le Sudan(Suakin), Persia(Bandar Abbas) le India (Surat).[17] Fa go lebelelwa bontsi jwa merafe ya kwa Madagascar, o aneng a nniwa ke batho ba ba tlhakaneng ba bantsho le ba Austronesia, makgoba a Malagasy a ne a akaretsa batho ba kwa borwabotlhaba jwa Asia, Aforika le ba ba kopantseng ditso.

Bagwebi ba kwa Europe le bone ba ne ba tsaya karolo mo kgwebong ya Madagascar le lewatle le lehibidu. Ka ngwaga wa 1694, sekepe sa kompone ya kwa botlhaba jwa India ya batho ba Ducth (VOC) se ne sa isa makgoba a kwa Malagasy a le makgolo a mane go ya kwa lotshitshing lwa Arabia mo lewatleng le lehibidu, kwa ba neng ba rekisediwa bagwebi ba makgoba ba Muslim gore ba diriwe makgoba kwa Mecca, Medina, Mocha, Aden, al-Shhr le Kishn. [18][19] Batho ba ditso tsa Portuguese, French, Dutch, English le Ottomanbaen ba itsege le bone ba na le seabe sengwe mo kgwebong ya makgoba a Malagasy.

Tsela ya sedumedi

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Tsela e kgolo ya makgoba e ne e kopantswe le lefelo la sedumedi la Hajj. Hajj e nnile le seabe mo kgwebong ya makgoba. Ka ngwaga wa 1416, al-Maqrizi o ne a bua ka fa e leng gore baeti ba sedumedi ba ba tswang kwa Takrur (gaufi le noka ya Senegal) ba ne ba tla le makgoba a le sekete le makgolo a supa kwa Mecca.

Loeto lwa ngwaga le ngwaga lwa kwa Mecca, kwa Hajj, ke lone lo lo neng lo le logolo mo tsamaisong ya makgoba.[20] Fa kgwebo ya go kgabaganya Sahara e ne e fela, aeti ba ditso tsa Muslim le ma Aforika go kgabaganya Sahara ba ne ba tsiediwa kgotsa ba neelwa ditlhwatlhwa tse di kwa tlase tsa motsamao ke baeteledipele ba merafe; fa ba goroga kwa lotshitshing lo lo kwa botlhaba, ba ne ba rekisiwa go kgabaganya lewatle le lehibidu mo dikepeng tsa bokgoba jwa lewatle le lehibidu kgotsa mo difofaneng tse dinnye tsa bapalami, mme ba lemoge fa ba goroga kwa Saudi Arabia gore ba ya go rekisiwa mo marekisetsong a makgoba eseng go diragatsa Hajj.[20]

Bagwebi ba makgoba gantsi ba ne ba rekisa basadi le bana ba supa fa e le basadi ba bone, batlhanka kgotsa baeti go ya Hejaz, kwa ba neng ba rekisiwa fa ba goroga.[9] Setlhopha se sa batswasetlhabelo ba thekiso se ne se tswa mo lefatsheng la Muslim, bokgakala jwa East indies le China. Batsamai bangwe ba ne rekisa batlhanka ba bone kgotsa bapati ba ba neng ba sa itsholela sepe kwa Hajj, gore ba kgone go duela madi a mosepele wa bone.[9]

Motsamai wa lotso lwa Sekgoa Charles M. Doughty, o a nenga etetse Central Arabia ka dingwaga tsa 1880, o ne a supa fa makgoba a Aforika a tsisiwa kwa Arabia ngwaga le ngwaga ka moletlo wa Hajj, le gore go na le batlamedi ba borre le ba basadi le malwapa a batho bantsho mo morafeng mongwe le mongwe le toropo nngwe le nngwe.[21]

Ka dingwaga tsa 1920, kgato e ne ya tsewa ke ba British, kgatlhanong le kgwebo ya makgoba ya lewatle le lehibidu, ka letsholo la bone kgatlhanong le bokgoba kwa Sudan ka go tsaya taolo ya mesepele ya sedumedi kwa HaJJ, ba tlhama kwa makgoba a a faloditsweng ke batho ba Britain mo bokgobeng jwa bogosi jwa Hejaz, ba ka yang teng kwa lotshitshing lwa Sudan, se se ne sa baka gore makgoba a ka nna makgolo a ferabobedi a fudusiwe ka dingwaga tsa 1925 go tsena ka 1935.[9]

Ka dingwaga tsa 1950, Barnett Janner a bereka le komiti ya makgoba ya United Nations le Bokopano jwa tlaleletso mo go emisiweng ga bokgoba o ne a latlhela la gagwe a re:

Go tsamaisa makgoba ka sekepe go diragala mo lefelong le le lengwefela mo lefatsheng, kwa mawatleng a a gaufi le Saudi Arabia. Dikepe tsa ntwa tse di neng di ka batla makgoba ao ke tsa Britain, e bile ke dumela gore ga go nke go nne le tshotlo ya tshwanelo ya go batla. Ke maswabi go bo re ne ra emisa go lwela tshwanelo eo. Go ya ka fa ke itseng ka teng, Saudi Arabia le Yemen ke one fela mafatshe a a mo leaftsheng a bokgoba jwa dithoto bo santseng bo le mo molaong. Ngwaga fela e e fetileng, mothusa tautona wa France, o tsala ya me a neng a batlisisa seemo mme a fitlhela e le gore ngwaga le ngwaga ma Aforika a a seng kelotlhoko a raelwa ke baemedi go tsaya loeto go ya Mecca. Ga ba bolelelwe ee, gore ba tlhoka teseletso ya mosepele go ya Saudi Arabia. Fa ba goroga kwa Saudi Arabia ba sena teseletso, ba a tshwarwa ba tsenngwe ka kgolegelo malatsi a le mmalwa, mme morago ba neelwe bagwebi ba makgoba ba ba letleletsweng. Fa godimo ga foo, ditlhaselo di a dirwa kwa Baluchistan le Sheikdom kwa lotshitshing lwa Persia, mme batho ba tshwarwe ba tsamaisiwe ka tsela kgotsa lewatle go ya matshitshing a mannye a Saudi Arabia kwa ba rekisediwang marekisetso a makgoba.[22]

Bolweladitshwanelo kgatlhanong le kgwebo ya makgoba

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Pele ga ntwa ya bobedi ya lefatshe

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Melao ya Ottoman e e kgatlhanong le bokgoba e ne e se mo tirisong ka dingwaga tse di makgolo a le lesome le boferabongwe, bogolo jang e seng kwa Hejaz; maiteko a ntlha a go emisa go gweba ka makgoba ga lewatle le lehibidu ka ngwaga wa 1857, a ne a fela ka Hejaz e seegelwa kwa thoko mo kemisong eo, morago ga go tsuologa ga Heraj.[9] Bokopano jwa Anglo-Ottoman jwa ngwaga wa 1880, bo ne jwa emisa bokgoba jwa lewatle le lehibidu ka fa tsamaisong, mme go ne ga seke ga dirwa kwa dikgaolong tsa Ottoman kwa Arabian Peninsula.[9]

Batho ba Britain ba ne ba lwantsha kgwebo ya makgoba ka go disa lewatle le lehibidu. Ka ngwaga wa 1880, bogosi jwa Ottoman bo ne jwa dumalana le Britain go nna le tshwanelo ya go tlhola le go isa dikepe kwa dikgaolong tsa Ottoman, tse go belaelwang di tshotse makgoba.[23] Le fa go ntse jalo, melao e e ne e sa bereke, ka bagwebi ba makgoba ba ne ba bolelela babusi ba dikolone tsa Europe gore makgoba ke basadi ba bone, bana ba bone, batlhanka ba bone kgotsa baeti ka bone ba ba yang kwa Hajj, mme batswasetlhabelo le bone ba ne ba dumela seo, ba sa itse gore ba ya go rekisiwa go nna makgoba.[9]

Ka ofisi ya baemedi ba Britain e ne e butswe kwa Jeddah ka dingwaga tsa 1870, batho ba Britain ba ne ba dirisitse ditshiamelo tsa bone go falotsa makgoba a a neng a siela kwa ofising ya moemedi go kopa botshabelo.[9] makgoba a bogosi a ne a seegetswe kwa thoko mo tshiamelong e. Le fag go ntse jalo, tiro ya kwa France le Italy e ne e le e potlana, batho ba lotso lwa Dutch, ke bone fela ba neng ab na le maikaelelo a go dirisa tsshwanelo e fela jaaka ba Britain. Tshwanelo ya go falodisiwa ka go kopa botshabelo e ne e ka dirisiwa ke lekgoba lengwe le lengwe le le kgonneng go goroga kwa ofising ya moemedi kgotsa sekepe se e leng sa mongwe o o mo boeteledipele jwa lefatshe le sele. Bontsi jwa makgoba ba ba neng ba dirisa tshwanelo e e ne ele baagi ba mafatshe a a ka fa tlase ga taolo ya mafatshe ao, ba ba neg ba tsere maeto go ya kwa Arabia ba sa itse gore ba ya go rekisiwa go nna makgoba fa ba goroga. Go falodiwa ga makgoba go ne ga amogelwa ke baeteledipele ba Arabia mme ga bo go sa ratiwe ke beng gae, go ne go tlwaelesegile gore makgoba a a kopileng botshabelo a nyelele fa ba santse ba le fa gare ga go kopa botshabelo le gore ofisi e ba batlele lefelo mo sekepeng.[9]

Bokgoba le go gweba ka makgoba kwa Arabian Peninsula, le kwa Saudi Arabia (bogosi jwa Hejaz), go ne go gapa leitlho la lekgotla la League of Nations ga bo ga nna le seabe mo bokopanong jwa 1926 jwa bokgoba, jo bo neng jwa dumalana le lefatshe la Britain go emisa go gweba ka makgoba mo kgaolong eo.[9]

Go kgona go emisa go gweba ka makgoba mo lewatleng le lehibidu, mo go neng go amana thata le loeto lwa kwa Hajj, bokopano jwa kwa Alexandria jwa ngwaga wa 1927 bo ne jwa dumalana gore baeti ba sedumedi ba tshwanetse go tsamaya ka dikepe tsa magala kgotsa mekoro ya enjene gore ba tile dikepe tse ditona, mme molao o o ne wa nna dingalo go drisiwa, baeti ba tswelela go kgabaganya lewatle le lehibidu ka dinao kwa mafelong a a neng go le thata go a laola.[9]

Ka ngwaga wa 1930, Le Matin o ne a gatisa tsebe ka lewatlele lehbidu go tswa kwa Djibouti kwa go buiwang French teng, a tlhalosa ka fa bagwebi ba makgoba ba lotso lwa Arab ba neng ba latlhela makgoba ba tshela mo lewatleng le lehibidu go tila dikepe tse di neng di disitse lewatle tsa ba ba kgatlhanong le go gweba ka makgoba, ba itse gore ba tla ema go tsaya makgoba, tsebe e e ne ya gapa leitlho la batho ba le bantsi mme ya nna le seabe mo go ema nokeng komiti ya baitseanape ba bokgoba ga lefatshe la France.

Ka ngwaga wa 1933, lefatshe la Nigeria le ne la simolola tsamaiso e ntšha ya dbukana tsa mesepele, e e neng e tlhoka gore baeti ba tsenye madi go duelela mosepele le madi a go boa, e le go itsa go dirwa makgoba ka nako ya Hajj.

Gareng ga dingwaga tsa 1928 le 1931, ofisi ya moemedi ya Britain kwa Jeddah e ne ya thusa batho ba le masome a ferabobedi le bongwe go falodiwa mo bokgobeng, ba le masome a mane le borataro ba ne ba busediwa kwa Sudan, ba le masome mabedi le botlhano ba busediwa kwa Massawa kwa Eritrea. Bontsi jwa makgoba ba ne ba tswa kwa Aforika, mme ka bontsi jwa bone ba ne ba rekisitswe e santse e le bana, go ne ga nna thata mo baeteledingpele. Ba ne ba sa kgone go gakologelwa gore ba tswa kwa kae, kgotsa malwapa a bone a nna kae, ba sa tlhole ba bua puo ya ga bone ba bua seArabea fela, ka jalo go ne ga nna dingalo gore ba ithuse morago ga go falodiwa, selo se ka dingwaga tsa 1930 se neng sa baka go goga dinao mo baeteledingpele go ba amogela.

Ka ngwaga wa 1936, lefatshe la Saudi Arabia le ne la emisa go tsaya makgoba a a neng a se makgoba pele ga ba tsena kwa bogosing, selo se se ne se le mo mokwalong fela.

Morago ga ntwa ya bobedi ya lefatshe

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Morago ga ntwa ya bobedi, go ne ga nna le kgatelelo go tswa mo lekgotleng la United Nations go emisa go gweba ka makgoba. Ka ngwaga wa 1948, lekgotla la United Nations le ne la itsise gore bokgoba ke tlolo molao kgatlhanong le setho, mo molaong wa mafatshe wa ditshwanelo tsa setho, morago mokgatlho wa kgatlhanong le bokgoba o ne wa supa fa go na le makgoba a ka anna sedikadike kwa Arabian Peninsula, mo e neng e le molato kgatlhanong le bokopano jwa 1926, mme ba gwetlha lekgotla la UN go dira komiti e e tla rarabololang kgang e.

Lekgotla la Britain le le kgatlhanong le bokgoba le ne le dira letsholo kgatlhanong le bokgoba le go gweba ka makgoba kwa Arabian Peninsula go tswa ka phelelo ya ntwa ya bobedi ya lefatshe go fitlhelela ka 1970, mme ba tsenya mo pontsheng seabe sa Saudi Arabia ka dingwaga tse di makgolo a a masome a mabedi kwa United Nations, mme maiteko a bone a ne a kganelwa ke go tlhoka kemo nokeng ya London le Washington.[20] Dipego tsa ofisi ya mafatshe ya Britain di ne di supa fa go na le koketsego mo kgwebong ya makgoba go ya Saudi Arabia morago ga ntwa ya bobedi ya lefatshe, mme ba itlhophela go itlhokomolosa go tila go bonala ba na le seabe.[20]

Ditshupo mo metsweding ya dikgang le tse di itlhametsweng

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Ditshedimosetso tse dingwe

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  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Miran, Jonathan (2022-04-20), "Red Sea Slave Trade", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.868, ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4, retrieved 19 June 2025
  2. ↑ Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2013-12-16). The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century (0 ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315035383. ISBN 978-1-135-18214-4.
  3. ↑ Nunn, Nathan (2008). "The Long-Term Effects of Africa's Slave Trades". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 123 (1): 139–176. doi:10.1162/qjec.2008.123.1.139. ISSN 0033-5533. JSTOR 25098896.
  4. 1 2 3 4 The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing.
  5. ↑ Black, J. (2015). The Atlantic Slave Trade in World History. USA: Taylor & Francis. p. 14 [1]
  6. ↑ [2] Hazell, A. (2011). The Last Slave Market: Dr John Kirk and the Struggle to End the East African Slave Trade. Storbritannien: Little, Brown Book Group.
  7. ↑ Mirzai, B. A. (2017). A History of Slavery and Emancipation in Iran, 1800-1929. USA: University of Texas Press. p. 56-57
  8. ↑ Toledano, E. R. (2014). The Ottoman Slave Trade and Its Suppression: 1840-1890. USA: Princeton University Press. p. 228-230
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Miers, Suzanne (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0340-5.
  10. ↑ Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2013). The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century. Routledge. p. 99. ISBN 978-1135182212.
  11. ↑ Yimene, Ababu Minda (2004). An African Indian Community in Hyderabad: Siddi Identity, Its Maintenance and Change. Cuvillier Verlag. p. 73. ISBN 3865372066.
  12. ↑ Barendse, Rene J. (2016). The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 259. ISBN 978-1317458364.
  13. ↑ Brown, Jonathan A. C. (2020). Slavery and Islam. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1786076366.
  14. ↑ "Slavery and Islam 4543201504, 9781786076359, 9781786076366". dokumen.pub.
  15. ↑ Ahmed, Hussein (2021). Islam in Nineteenth-Century Wallo, Ethiopia: Revival, Reform and Reaction. Vol. 74 of Social, Economic and Political Studies of the Middle East and Asia. BRILL. p. 152. ISBN 978-9004492288.
  16. ↑ Mirzai, B. A.; Montana, I. M.; Lovejoy, Paul (2009). Slavery, Islam and Diaspora. Africa World Press. pp. 37–76.
  17. ↑ Vernet, Thomas (17 Feb 2012). "Slave Trade and Slavery on the Swahili Coast, 1500–1750" (PDF). shs.hal.science/. Archived from the original (PDF) Retrieved 19 June 2025.
  18. ↑ "Subvoyage 5371". www.exploringslavetradeinasia.com. Exploring Slave Trade in Asia (ESTA). 2024. Archived from the original on 19 June 2025.
  19. ↑ van Rossum, Matthias; de Windt, Mike (2018). References to Slave Trade in VOC Digital Sources, 1600-1800. Amsterdam: International Institute of Social History. p. 731. hdl:10622/YXEN6R.
  20. 1 2 3 4 DeAntonis, Nicholas J. (2021). Emancipating "The Unfortunates": The Anti-slavery Society, the United States, the United Nations, and the Decades-Long Fight to Abolish the Saudi Arabian Slave Trade (Thesis). Fordham Research Commons. OCLC 1306241418. Docket AAI28499257.
  21. ↑ Zdanowski J. Slavery in the Gulf in the First Half of the 20th Century : A Study Based on Records from the British Archives. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Askon; 2008
  22. ↑ ANTI-SLAVERY CONVENTION (Hansard, 21 December 1956)
  23. ↑ Clarence-Smith, William Gervase. Islam and the abolition of slavery. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006; Lewis, Bernard. Race and slavery in the Middle East, an historical enquiry, New York: Oxford University Press, 1990, particularly chapters 10 and 11; Miller, Joseph C. “The Abolition of the Slave Trade and Slavery: Historical Foundations,” in Diène, Doudou. (ed.) From Chains to Bonds: The Slave Trade Revisited, Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2001, pp. 159–193. Avitsur, Shmuel. Daily Life in Eretz Israel in the XIX century. Tel Aviv: Am Hassefer Publishing House, 1972 (Hebrew)
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