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Mobutu Sese Seko
Mobutu in 1983
President of Zaire
In office
27 October 1971 – 16 May 1997
Pele Ga GagweJoseph Kasa-Vubu
(as President of the DRC)
Morago Ga GagweLaurent-Désiré Kabila
(as President of the DRC)
2nd President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
In office
24 November 1965 – 27 October 1971
Pele Ga GagweJoseph Kasa-Vubu
Morago Ga GagweHimself
(as President of Zaire)
5th Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity
In office
11 September 1967 – 14 September 1968
Pele Ga GagweHaile Selassie
Morago Ga GagweHouari Boumédiène
Ka Ga Ena
O tsetsweJoseph-Désiré Mobutu
(1930-10-14)14 Diphalane 1930
Lisala, Équateur, Belgian Congo
O Tlhokafetse7 Lwetse 1997(1997-09-07) (aged 66)
Rabat, Rabat-Salé-Kénitra, Morocco
MokgatlhoPopular Movement of the Revolution
Mo/Bakapelo
    ​
    ​
    (m. 1955; died 1977)​
      ​
      (m. 1980)​
      Bana16, including Nzanga and Kongulu
      Military service
      AllegianceTempolete:Country data Belgian Congo Belgian Congo (1949–1960)
      Tempolete:Country data COD Congo-Léopoldville (1960–1971)
      Tempolete:Country data Zaire
      (1971–1997)
      Service/branch
      Dingwaga tsa tiro1949–1997
      Rank
      Battles/wars

      Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga[a][1] (/məˈbuːtuː ˈsɛseɪ ˈsɛkoʊ/ c mə-BOO-too SESS-ay SEK-oh; o tshotswe ke Joseph-Désiré Mobutu; Phalane a le lesome le bone 1930 – Lwetse a le supa 1997), gantsi a khutshwafadiwa go nna Mobutu Sese Seko kgotsa Mobutu mme gape a itsiwe ka ditlhaka tsa gagwe tsa ntlha MSS, e ne e le lepolotiki la Congo le modiredi wa sesole yo e neng e le ene fela tautona wa ntlha e le ene fela wa Zaire go tloga ka 1971 go ya go 1997. Pele ga foo, Mobutu o ne a direla jaaka tautona wa bobedi wa Rephaboliki ya Temokerasi ya Congo, go tloga ka 1965 go ya go 1971. Gape o kile a nna modulasetulo wa botlhano wa Mokgatlho wa Kutlwano ya Aforika go tswa ka 1967 go ya go 1968. Ka nako ya Mathata a kwa Congo ka 1960, Mobutu, yo ka nako eo a neng a dira e le Moeteledipele wa Sesole sa Congo, o ne a tlosa puso ya setshaba e e neng e tlhophilwe ka temokerasi ya ga Patrice Lumumba ka tshegetso ya U.S. le Belgium. Mobutu o ne a tlhoma puso e e neng ya rulaganya gore Lumumba a bolawe ka 1961, mme a tswelela go etelela pele masole a lefatshe go fitlha a tsaya puso ka tlhamalalo ka menolopuso ya bobedi ka 1965.

      Go tiisa maatla a gagwe, o ne a tlhoma Popular Movement of the Revolution jaaka one fela lekoko la sepolotiki le le kafa molaong ka 1967, a fetola leina la Congo go nna Zaire ka 1971, le leina la gagwe go nna Mobutu Sese Seko ka 1972. dikgatako tsa ditshwanelo. O ne a leka go phepafatsa lefatshe mo tlhotlheletsong yotlhe ya setso sa bokolone ka thulaganyo ya gagwe ya "boammaaruri jwa bosetshaba".[2][3] Mobutu one a obamelwa thata ka kobamelo e e neng e aname ya setho.[4]

      Mobutu o ne a bolela gore kgopolo ya gagwe ya sepolotiki e ne e se "ya molema kgotsa ya moja, le fa e le ya bogare",[5] mme o ne a amogelwa thata ka ntlha ya go nna kgatlhanong le bokomanisi mo teng ga kgaolo ya Françafrique mme a amogela tshegetso e e nonofileng (ya sesole, ya botsalano le ya itsholelo) go tswa kwa United States, Fora, le Belgium go lebilwe ntlha eo. O ne gape a aga botsalano jo bo gaufi le dipuso tsa Aforika Borwa ya tlhaolele, Iseraele le puso ya Bagerika.[6]

      Mobutu o ne a itsege thata ka tshenyetsosetshaba le go tsaya letlhakore: dikakanyetso tsa khumo ya gagwe ka namana di simolola ka didikadike di le $50 go ya go $5 billion,[7][8] e e kokoantsweng ka tirisobotlhaswa ya itsholelo le tshenyetsosetshaba jaaka tautona.[9] Puso ya gagwe e biditswe kleptocracy[10][11] ka ntlha ya go letlelela khumo eo ya setho le fa itsholelo ya Zaire e ne e boga ka ntlha ya koketsego ya ditlhwatlhwa e e sa laolesegeng, sekoloto se segolo, le go fokotsega ga boleng jwa madi ka bontsi. Mobutu o ne a itsege gape ka ditiro tse di sa tlwaelesegang jaaka maeto a go reka go ya kwa Paris ka sefofane sa Concorde sa lebelo le le kwa godimo.[12]

      Ka 1990, go senyega ga itsholelo le dikhuduego di ne tsa pateletsa Mobutu Sese Seko go dira tirisanommogo le baganetsi ba sepolotiki le go letlelela tsamaiso ya makoko a le mantsi. Le fa a ne a dirisa masole a gagwe go kgoreletsa phetogo, ditiro tsa gagwe tsa matlhajana ga di a ka tsa tsaya lobaka lo loleele. Ka Motsheganong 1997, masole a marabele a a neng a eteletswe pele ke Laurent-Désiré Kabila a ne a gapa lefatshe mme a mo pateletsa go ya lejwa. E re ka a ne a setse a na le kankere e e tseneletseng ya lela la setlha, o ne a tlhokafala dikgwedi di le tharo moragonyana kwa Morocco.

      Ka ga gagwe

      [fetola | Fetola Motswedi]

      Dingwaga tsa pele le thuto

      [fetola | Fetola Motswedi]

      Mobutu, leloko la setlhopha sa morafe wa Ngbandi,[13] o tshotswe ka 1930 kwa Lisala, kwa Congo ya Belgium.[14] Mmaagwe Mobutu, Marie Madeleine Yemo, e ne e le mmereki wa hotele yo o neng a tshabela kwa Lisala go tshabela ntlo ya basadi ya kgosi ya motse wa lefelo leo. Fa a le koo o ne a kopana le Albéric Gbemani, yo e neng e le seapei sa moatlhodi wa kwa Belgium mme a mo nyala.[15][16] Moragonyana fela ga foo o ne a tshola Mobutu. Leina "Mobutu" le tlhophilwe ke malome mongwe.

      Gbemani o tlhokafetse fa Mobutu a le dingwaga di robabobedi.[17] Morago ga moo, o ne a godisiwa ke malome le rremogolo.

      Mosadi wa moatlhodi wa Belgium o ne a rata Mobutu mme a mo ruta go bua, go bala le go kwala ka thelelo ka Sefora,[18] puo ya semmuso ya koloni eo. Mmaagwe yo o neng a le motlholagadi e bong Yemo o ne a ikaegile ka thuso ya ba losika go tlamela bana ba gagwe ba le bane, mme lelwapa le ne le fuduga gantsi. Thuto ya ntlha ya ga Mobutu e ne ya diragala kwa motsemogolong wa Léopoldville (e jaanong e bidiwang Kinshasa). Mmaagwe o ne a feleletsa a mo rometse kwa go malomaagwe kwa Coquilhatville (e gompieno e leng Mbandaka), koo a neng a tsena Sekolo sa Bakaulengwe ba Bakeresete gone, e leng sekolo se se nang le boroko sa barongwa ba Katoliki. O ne a dira sentle thata mo dithutong tsa gagwe mme a tsamaisa lekwalodikgang la setlhopha. O ne a itsege gape ka metlae ya gagwe le go tshegisa.[19]

      Moithutikaene le ene o ne a gakologelwa gore fa baruti ba Belgium, ba puo ya bone ya ntlha e neng e le SeDutch, ba ne ba dira phoso ka Sefora, Mobutu o ne a tle a tlole a eme ka dinao mo ntlwaneng ya borutelo mme a supe phoso eo. Ka 1949 Mobutu o ne a palama mokoro, a tsamaya a fologa noka go ya kwa Léopoldville, kwa a neng a kopana le mosetsana mongwe gone. Baperesiti ba ne ba mmona dibeke di le mmalwa moragonyana. Kwa bokhutlong jwa ngwaga wa sekolo, boemong jwa go romelwa kwa kgolegelong, o ne a laelwa go dira dingwaga di le supa mo sesoleng sa bokoloniale, e leng Force Publique (FP). Se e ne e le kotlhao e e tlwaelesegileng ya baithuti ba ba tsuologang.[20]

      Tirelo ya sesole

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      Mobutu o ne a bona kotlhao mo botshelong jwa sesole, mmogo le sebopego sa rre mo go Sajene Louis Bobozo. Mobutu o ne a tswelela ka dithuto tsa gagwe ka go adima makwalodikgang a Yuropa mo badireding ba Belgium le dibuka gongwe le gongwe kwa a neng a ka di bona teng, a di bala fa a le mo tirong ya go disa le nako le nako fa a na le nako ya go ikhutsa. Dibuka tse a neng a di rata thata e ne e le tsa ga poresidente wa Fora e bong Charles de Gaulle, tonakgolo ya Borithane e bong Winston Churchill le moakanyi wa motlha wa Tsosoloso wa kwa Italy e bong Niccolò Machiavelli. Morago ga go falola thuto ya tsa madi, Mobutu o ne a simolola go dira tiro ya bobegadikgang ka tsela ya seporofeshnale. E re ka a ne a sa ntse a galefile morago ga go thulana le baruti ba sekolo, ga a ka a nyala mo kerekeng. Seabe sa gagwe mo meletlong ya lenyalo e ne e le dibiri, tuelo yotlhe ya gagwe ya sesole e ne e ka e kgona tsone fela.[21]

      Seabe sa dipolotiki sa pele

      [fetola | Fetola Motswedi]

      Jaaka lesole, Mobutu o ne a kwala ka leina la maitirelo ka dipolotiki tsa motlha wa segompieno mo bukaneng ya Actualités Africaines (Dikgang tsa Aforika), e leng bukana e e neng e tlhomilwe ke mokolone wa kwa Belgium. Ka 1956, o ne a tlogela sesole mme a nna mmegadikgang wa nako e e tletseng,[22] a kwalela lekwalodikgang la letsatsi le letsatsi la Léopoldville la L'Avenir.[23]

      Dingwaga di le pedi moragonyana, o ne a ya kwa Belgium go ya go bega ka Pontsho ya Lefatshe Lotlhe ya 1958 mme a nna koo go ya go thapisediwa bobegadikgang. Ka nako e, Mobutu o ne a kopane le bontsi jwa batlhalefi ba basha ba Congo ba ba neng ba gwetlha puso ya bokolone. O ne a nna botsalano le Patrice Lumumba mme a tsenelela Congolese National Movement (MNC) wa ga Lumumba. Mobutu o ne a feleletsa e le mothusi wa ga Lumumba ka namana. Batho ba le mmalwa ba motlha wa gagwe ba supa gore matlhale a Belgium a ne a thapile Mobutu go nna tsaya-o-a-ise wa puso.[24]

      Ka nako ya dipuisano tsa 1960 kwa Brussels ka boipuso jwa Congo, boemedi jwa United States bo ne jwa tshwara moletlo wa kamogelo wa baemedi ba Congo. Badiri ba Boemedi mongwe le mongwe wa bone o ne a abelwa lenaane la maloko a baemedi a a neng a tshwanetse go kopana le one, mme ba tlotla ka maikutlo a bone morago ga moo. Moemedi o ne a lemotsha jaana, "Leina le le lengwe le ne le nna le tlhagelela. Mme le ne le se mo lenaaneng la ope ka gonne e ne e se leloko la semmuso la baemedi, e ne e le mokwaledi wa ga Lumumba. Mme mongwe le mongwe o ne a dumalana gore yoo e ne e le monna yo o botlhale thata, yo mmotlana thata, gongwe a sa gola, mme e le monna yo o nang le bokgoni jo bogolo."[25]

      Morago ga ditlhopho tsa setshaba, Lumumba o ne a newa tiro ya go tlhama puso. O ne a naya Mobutu tiro ya go nna Mokwaledi wa puso kwa kantorong ya ga tautona. Mobutu o ne a na le tlhotlheletso e kgolo mo tshwetsong ya bofelo ya puso yotlhe.[26] O ne a latlhegelwa ke phitlhelelo ya sephiri mo go Lumumba morago ga boipuso, jaaka fa tonakgolo e ntsha e ne e tshwarega thata le go dikologiwa ke bathusi le badirammogo, mme seo sa dira gore bobedi jo bo kgaogane.[27]

      Mathata a Congo

      [fetola | Fetola Motswedi]
      Colonel Mobutu ka 1960
      Mobutu mo loetong lwa gagwe lwa 1963 kwa Iseraele, koo a neng a nna le seabe mo thutong e e khutshwane ya masole a a fofang ka pharachuti ya IDF .

      Phukwi a le malatsi a matlhano ka 1960, masole a Force Publique a a neng a le kwa Kampeng ya Léopold II kwa Léopoldville, a sa kgotsofalela boeteledipele jwa bone jwa basweu botlhe le maemo a bone a tiro, a ne a tsogologa. Botsuolodi joo bo ne jwa anama le kgaolo eo mo malatsing a a latelang. Mobutu o ne a thusa badiredi ba bangwe go buisana le batsuolodi go netefatsa gore badiredi le malwapa a bona ba a gololwa.[28] Fa Phukwi a ferabobedi Lekgotla le le tletseng la Matona le ne la kopana mo kopanong e e sa tlwaelesegang ka fa tlase ga bodulasetilo jwa ga tautona Joseph Kasa-Vubu kwa Camp Léopold II go buisa tiro ya go dira gore setlhopha sa masole se nne sa Aforika.[29]

      Matona a ne a ngangisana ka gore ke mang yo o tla dirang molaodi wa sesole yo o tshwanelang. Bontlhopheng ba bagolo ba babedi ba maemo ao e ne e le Tona ya Basha le Metshameko Maurice Mpolo le Mobutu. Ya ntlha e ne e bontshitse tlhotlheletso nngwe mo masoleng a a neng a tsuologa, fela Kasa-Vubu le matona a Bakongo ba ne ba tshaba gore o tla dira molao wa go menola puso fa a ka newa puso. Ya morago e ne e tsewa e le e e ritibetseng le e e akanyetsang thata.[30] Lumumba o ne a bona Mpolo a le pelokgale, mme a rata botlhale jwa ga Mobutu. Fa dipuisano di ntse di tsweletse, matona a simolola go kgaogana go ya ka gore ba rata mang go nna mookamedi wa badiri. Lumumba o ne a batla go boloka banna bao ka bobedi mo pusong ya gagwe mme o ne a eletsa go tila go kgopisa nngwe ya dikampa tsa bone tsa baemanokeng.[30] Kwa bofelong Mobutu o ne a newa seabe mme a newa maemo a mokolonele.[31] Letsatsi le le latelang baemedi ba puso ba ne ba tswa mo motsemogolong go ya go lebelela go dira gore sesole se nne sa Aforika; Mobutu o ne a romelwa kwa Équateur.[32] Fa a le koo Mpolo o ne a dira jaaka Moeteledipele wa Badiredi ba ANC.[33][34] Mobutu o ne a kgopisiwa ke tiragalo e, mme fa a boa kwa motsemoshate o ne a lebagana le Lumumba mo kopanong ya matona, a re, "Ke ne ke sa tshwanelege, mme o tshwanetse go ntlhoboga, kgotsa ke ne ka diragatsa thomo ya me ka boikanyegi mme ka jalo ke boloka maemo a me le ditiro tsa me."[34]

      Motsalani wa Borithane Brian Urquhart yo o neng a direla le Ditšhabakopano o ne a kwala jaana: "Fa ke ne ke kopana le Mobutu la ntlha ka Phukwi 1960, e ne e le mothusi yo mogolo wa sesole wa ga Tonakgolo Patrice Lumumba mme o ne a sa tswa go itlhatlosa go tswa go sajene go ya go molefothenente-kolonele. Fa a bapisiwa le mookamedi wa gagwe, Mobutu e ne e le pilara ya pragmatism le tlhaloganyo e e itekanetseng. Ke ene yo re neng ra ikuela mo go ene fa batho ba rona ba ne ba tshwarwa ke bomakatane ba ga Lumumba ba ba neng ba tlhotlhelediwa ke hashish. E ne e le ene yo o neng a tla tlisa, ka tsela e e sa reng sepe, dikopo tse di tlhomolang pelo thata tsa ga Lumumba – gore Lekgotla la Ditshaba le tshwanetse go, ka sekai, go fitlhelela lenaane la dituelo la sesole sa Congo se se ka nnang sa tsuologa. Mo malatsing ao a ntlha, Mobutu o ne a lebega e le lekawana le le nang le tlhaloganyo, le le neng le ka nna le dikgatlhego tse di molemo tsa lefatshe la gagwe le lesha le le neng le sa tswa go bona boipuso mo pelong."[35]

      E re ka puso ya Belgium e ne e ikaeletse go nna e kgona go bona meepo e e humileng ya Congo, go ne ga runya thubakanyo ya go ikgaoganya le puso kwa borwa. E tshwenyegile gore sesole sa Lekgotla la Ditshaba le le neng le rometswe go thusa go busetsa thulaganyo e ne e sa thuse go thubaganya batho ba ba neng ba ikgaoganya, Lumumba o ne a retologela kwa Soviet Union go kopa thuso. O ne a newa thuso e kgolo ya sesole le bagakolodi ba ka nna sekete ba setegeniki ba Soviet mo dibekeng tse thataro. Jaaka fa go ne go ntse jalo ka nako ya Ntwa ya Molomo, puso ya United States e ne e tshaba gore tiro ya Soviet e ne e le tsela ya go anamisa tlhotlheletso ya bokomanisi mo Aforika Bogare. Kasa-Vubu o ne a rotloediwa ke US le Belgium go leleka Lumumba, se a se dirileng Lwetse a le malatsi matlhano. Lumumba yo o neng a galefile o ne a bolela gore Kasa-Vubu o tlositswe mo setilong. Palamente e ne ya gana go amogela go lelekwa mo tirong mme ya kopa gore go nne le poelano, mme ga go a ka ga fitlhelelwa tumalano epe.[36][37][38]

      Lumumba le Kasa-Vubu mongwe le mongwe o ne a laela Mobutu go tshwara yo mongwe. Jaaka Molaodi wa Badiri ba Sesole, Mobutu o ne a nna ka fa tlase ga kgatelelo e kgolo go tswa mo metsweding e le mentsi. Diofisi tsa boemedi tsa ditshaba tsa Bophirima, tse di neng di thusa go duela dituelo tsa masole, mmogo le batho ba ba neng ba le kafa tlase ga ga Kasa-Vubu le Mobutu, botlhe ba ne ba rata gore Soviet e tlosiwe. Ka Lwetse a le lesome le bone Mobutu o ne a simolola menolopuso e e senang madi, a bolela gore bobedi Kasa-Vubu le Lumumba ba "feditswe bogale" le go tlhoma puso e ntsha ya dialogane tsa yunibesithi, Kholetshe ya Balaodi-Kakaretso. Lumumba o ne a gana kgato eo mme a patelesega go tlogela tiro go ya kwa bonnong jwa gagwe, kwa batlhokomedi ba kagiso ba UN ba neng ba thibela masole a ga Mobutu go mo tshwara. Urquhart o ne a gakologelwa gore ka letsatsi la go menola puso, Mobutu o ne a iponatsa a sa itsisiwe kwa ntlokgolong ya UN kwa Léopoldville mme a gana go tsamaya, go fitlhela seromamowa se itsise ka go menola puso, mme seo sa dira gore Mobutu a re gangwe le gape a re "C'est moi!" ("Ke nna yo!").[35] Ka go lemoga gore Mobutu o ne a ile fela kwa ntlokgolong ya UN gore fa go ka direga gore menolopuso e palelwe, Urquhart o ne a mo laela gore a tswe.[35]

      Ka go latlhegelwa ke tshepo ya gore mafatshe a boditshabatshaba a tlaa tshegetsa go busediwa ga gagwe mo tirong, Lumumba o ne a tshaba kwa bokhutlong jwa Ngwanaatsele go ya go kopanela le baemanokeng ba gagwe kwa Stanleyville go tlhoma puso e ntsha. O ne a gapiwa ke masole a ga Mobutu mo tshimologong ya Sedimonthole, mme a tlhatlhelwa kwa ntlokgolong ya gagwe kwa Thysville. Le fa go ntse jalo, Mobutu o ne a santse a mo tsaya e le matshosetsi, mme a mo fetisetsa kwa kgaolong e e tsuologang ya Katanga ka Firikgong a le lesome le bosupa ka 1961. Lumumba o ne a nyelela mo ponong ya setshaba. Moragonyana go ne ga lemogiwa gore o ne a bolawa ka lone letsatsi leo ke masole a a neng a ikgaoganya a ga Moise Tshombe, morago ga gore puso ya ga Mobutu e mo a neele.[39]

      Mokolonele Joseph-Desiré Mobutu (ka fa molemeng) le Tautona Joseph Kasa-Vubu, ka 1961

      Ka Firikgong a le masome mabedi le boraro 1961, Kasa-Vubu o ne a tlhatlosa Mobutu go nna mojenerale-mogolo. Raditso De Witte o bolela gore se e ne e le kgato ya sepolotiki, "e e neng e ikaeletse go nonotsha sesole, tshegetso ya tautona fela, le maemo a ga Mobutu mo teng ga sesole".[40]

      Ka 1964, Pierre Mulele o ne a etelela pele batshegetsi ba lekoko mo botsuoloding jo bongwe. Ka bonako fela ba ne ba gapa bobedi mo borarong jwa Congo. Fa ba araba, sesole sa Congo, se se neng se eteletswe pele ke Mobutu, se ne sa gapa kgaolo yotlhe gape go fitlha ka 1965.[41]

      Metswedi

      [fetola | Fetola Motswedi]
      1. ↑ Leina le ranolwa jaaka "motlhabani yo o tswang mo phenyong go ya kwa phenyong, a tlogela molelo mo tseleng ya gagwe", "motlhabani yo o tlogelang motlhala wa molelo mo tseleng ya gagwe", kgotsa "motlhabani yo o sa itseng go fenngwa ka ntlha ya boitshoko jwa gagwe le thato e e sa fetogeng mme a le maatla otlhe, a tlogela molelo kwa morago ga gagwe go ya kwa phenyong".
      2. ↑ Vieira, Daviel Lazure: Precolonial Imaginaries and Colonial Legacies in Mobutu's "Authentic" Zaire in: Exploitation and Misrule in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa, (edited by) Kalu, Kenneth and Falola, Toyin, pp. 165–191, Palgrave Macmillan, 2019
      3. ↑ David F. Schmitz, The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989, pp. 9–36, 2006, Cambridge University Press
      4. ↑ "Mobutu Sese Seko". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. 2012. Archived from the original on 8 May 2013. E nopotswe Phukwi a le masome mabedi ka 2025.
      5. ↑ Young & Turner 1985, p. 210.
      6. ↑ "Kleptocracy and Anti-Communism: When Mobutu Ruled Zaire – Association for Diplomatic Studies & Training". adst.org. E nopotswe Phukwi a le masome mabedi ka 2025.
      7. ↑ Washington Post, "Mobutu: A Rich man In Poor Standing". Archived 25 September 2022 at the Wayback Machine 2 October 1991.
      8. ↑ The New York Times, "Mobutu’s village basks in his glory". Archived 20 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine 29 September 1988.
      9. ↑ "Revealing the Ultimate 2020 List: The 10 Most Corrupt Politicians in the World - The Sina Times". 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2024.
      10. ↑ Acemoglu, Daron; Robinson, James A. & Verdier, Thierry (April–May 2004). "Kleptocracy and Divide-and-Rule: A Model of Personal Rule". Journal of the European Economic Association. 2 (2–3): 162–192. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.687.1751. doi:10.1162/154247604323067916. S2CID 7846928. Archived from the original on 29 December 2014.
      11. ↑ Pearce, Justin (16 January 2001). "DR Congo's troubled history". BBC. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. E nopotswe Phukwi a le masome mabedi ka 2025.
      12. ↑ Tharoor, Ishaan (20 October 2011). "Mobutu Sese Seko". Top 15 Toppled Dictators. Time Magazine. Archived from the original on 22 October 2011. E nopotswe Phukwi a le masome mabedi ka 2025.
      13. ↑ "Chronology for Ngbandi in the Dem. Rep. of the Congo". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 15 May 2013. Archived from the original on 15 July 2018. E nopotswe Phukwi a le masome mararo ka 2025.
      14. ↑ Akrasih, Shirley (28 February 2012). "AFRICA AND DEMOCRACY Joseph Mobutu, Dictator of the DRC, and His Life-Saving Support from the US". Davidson College. Archived from the original on 3 March 2014.
      15. ↑ Robert Edgerton (2002). The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0312304867.
      16. ↑ Kenyon 2018, p. 7
      17. ↑ Wrong, Michela (2009) In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo. HarperCollins. ISBN 0061863610. pp. 70–72
      18. ↑ Kenyon 2018, p. 8
      19. ↑ Bailey, Thomas (9 May 2024). "Mobutu Sese Seko: The Rise and Fall of Congo's Infamous Dictator". TheCollector. E nopotswe Phukwi a le masome mararo ka 2025.
      20. ↑ Wrong, pp. 72–74
      21. ↑ Wrong, pp. 74–75
      22. ↑ Wrong, p. 75
      23. ↑ Young & Turner 1985, p. 175.
      24. ↑ Wrong, pp. 76
      25. ↑ Wrong, p. 67
      26. ↑ Kanza 1994, p. 113.
      27. ↑ Reid 2023, p. 124.
      28. ↑ Hoskyns 1965, pp. 88–89.
      29. ↑ Kanza 1994, p. 191.
      30. 1 2 Kanza 1994, p. 192.
      31. ↑ Kanza 1994, p. 193.
      32. ↑ Hoskyns 1965, pp. 92, 94.
      33. ↑ Hoskyns 1965, p. 136.
      34. 1 2 Reid 2023, p. 176.
      35. 1 2 3 Urquhart, Brian (13 February 2019). "Character Sketches: Mobutu and Tshombe -Two Congolese Rogues". United Nations. Archived from the original on 7 July 2020.
      36. ↑ Beyer, Greg (20 June 2023). "Patrice Lumumba: Hero & Martyr of the Congo". TheCollector. E nopotswe Phukwi a le masome mararo ka 2025.
      37. ↑ Marcussen, Rebecca (31 January 2025). "A not so secret assassination attempt: Lumumba and the history of the Republic of Congo". DEBAT. E nopotswe Phukwi a le masome mararo ka 2025.
      38. ↑ "Patrice Émery Lumumba: First Prime Minister of the Congo". E nopotswe Phukwi a le masome mararo ka 2025.
      39. ↑ Schmidt, Elizabeth. Foreign Intervention in Africa. Cambridge UP. pp. 62–65.
      40. ↑ De Witte, Ludo; Wright, Ann (2002). The Assassination of Lumumba. Verso Books. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-85984-410-6. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. E nopotswe Phukwi a le masome mararo ka 2025.
      41. ↑ "Mobutu's Ascension to Power – Innovative Research Methods". E nopotswe Phukwi a le masome mararo ka 2025.
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